The Greatest General in History? Alexander the Great (All Parts)

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At the narrow pass of Thermopylae, a small Greek force, led by 300 Spartans,

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held up the enormous Persian army for three days, before they were finally encircled and killed.

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Then, in the straits of Salamis, the Greek fleet defeated the Persian navy ...

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But they couldn't prevent the Persians burning the sacred temples of the Athenian acropolis.

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The next year, at Plataea, the Greeks won a decisive land battle against the Persians,and forced them to abandon their invasion.

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The next fifty years were the golden age of classical Greece.

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But rising tension between Athens and Sparta, and their allies, eventually led to war,

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dragging the Greek world into decades of destructive fighting.

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Wars between the Greek city-states continued for almost a century, leaving them exhausted...

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and vulnerable to a new, rising power to the north...

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For centuries, sophisticated Greeks had viewed the mountainous kingdom of Macedonia

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as a backwater, hicksville - barely Greek at all.

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But under King Philip II, Macedonia emerged as a formidable military force.

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His most famous reform: the introduction of the sarissa, an 18 foot pike, twice the length of a normal Greek spear,

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and wielded by trained infantry fighting in close formation, known as a phalanx.

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In 338 BC, at the Battle of Chaeronea, Philip's army crushed the joint forces of Thebes and Athens.

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Through alliance and conquest, Philip had already gained control over most of his neighbours.

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Now, following this victory, he united all Greece in an alliance known as the Hellenic League,

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or League of Corinth, with Philip as hegemon – or supreme commander.

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Only Sparta stood aside.

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Philip began to plan a great campaign - a Panhellenic, or all-Greek, war against the Persian Empire.

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Their old foe was now an ailing superpower, its great riches ripe for the taking...

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But on the eve of launching his war, Philip was assassinated by his own bodyguard

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– victim of Macedonia's brutal court rivalries.

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He was succeeded by his 20 year-old son Alexander: brilliant, restless, tutored by the great philosopher Aristotle,

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and already an experienced military commander.

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Alexander inherited his father's grand plan to invade Persia, but first he had to secure his own position as king:

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At home, he had potential rivals executed, then crushed rebellions in Illyria, Thessaly, and central Greece.

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He made a special example of Thebes – completely destroying the ancient city, and selling its people into slavery.

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In the spring of 334 BC, now ready to launch his war against the Persian Empire, Alexander led his army across the Hellespont into Asia Minor.

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It was the start of one of the greatest military campaigns in history.

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The Macedonian Army

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Alexander's army was about 40,000 strong, drawn from all parts of Greece.

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The infantry were commanded by the veteran Macedonian general Parmenion.

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In the front rank, 9,000 Macedonian phalangites, armed with the 18-foot sarissa.

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These were professional soldiers, well-trained and drilled, who formed up for battle in the phalanx, 16 ranks deep.

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This packed formation presented a solid wall of iron spear-tips, and was virtually unstoppable.

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But it was also difficult to manoeuvre, and highly vulnerable to attacks on its flanks or rear.

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So 3,000 elite infantry, the hypaspists, or 'shield-bearers', armed with shorter spears,

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guarded its flanks. They were commanded by Parmenion's son, Nikanor.

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The second line of Alexander's army was made up of 7,000 Greek allies and 5,000 mercenaries,

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armed as hoplites. They took their name from the hoplon, their large round shield, and carried, shorter, 8 foot spears.

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A hoplite phalanx was not as effective as the Macedonian phalangites, but still well-armed and heavily armoured for the time.

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The Agrianes were the army's elite skirmishers, expert javelin-throwers from what's now southern Bulgaria.

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Other skirmishers from Thrace, and Illyria, were armed with javelins, slings and bows.

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The shock troops of Alexander's army were the Companion Cavalry, 1,800 elite horsemen armed with spear and sword,

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commanded by Philotas, another son of Parmenion. Alexander led the royal squadron in person.

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There were also 1,800 cavalry from Thessaly, commanded by Kallas,

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600 from other parts of Greece, led by Erigyius, and 900 mounted scouts from Thrace and Paeonia, under Kassander.

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THE GRANICUS

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The great Persian Empire was divided into provinces, called satrapies. Each satrapy was ruled by a governor, or satrap.

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Those in Asia Minor now threatened by Alexander's invasion met to discuss strategy.

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Memnon of Rhodes, a skilled Greek general in Persian service, urged them to avoid battle with Alexander.

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Instead, he advised them to use a 'scorched earth' strategy

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– to burn villages and crops, and withdraw to the interior - Alexander's army, he promised, would quickly starve.

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It was good advice. But the satraps were unwilling to lay waste to their own provinces without a fight.

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So they decided to face Alexander's army at the River Granicus.

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The Persian army formed up behind the river, which was shallow, but 60 feet wide with steep banks.

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Their front line was a wall of cavalry, about 10,000 horsemen from across the empire

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– Medes and Hyrcanians from modern Iran, Bactrians from Afghanistan, and Paphlagonians from Turkey's Black Sea coast.

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Behind, in reserve, were the infantry – several thousand Greek mercenaries,

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a common sight in Persian armies at this time. These men fought for Persian gold,

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and were armed with the round shield and short spear of hoplites.

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The Persians may have been unsure if they could trust these men in combat against fellow Greeks, and so placed them at the rear.

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Alexander, determined to attack and destroy this Persian force before it could retreat, raced to the Granicus with his best troops.

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On his left wing, he posted Thessalian, Greek and Thracian cavalry, under Parmenion's command.

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In the centre, were the massed spears of the phalanx, its six divisions commanded by Perdikkas, Koinos, Amyntas, Philip, Meleager, and Krateros.

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On the right, Alexander himself, with the Companion Cavalry under Philotas, as well

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as the elite hypaspists, the Agrianes javelin-throwers, and the archers.

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Alexander, with 13,000 infantry, and 5,000 cavalry in all, was probably slightly outnumbered.

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But ignoring advice to wait until dawn to cross the river, he ordered an immediate assault.

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He sent a squadron of Companion cavalry to ford the river, followed by a regiment of hypaspists and the Paeonian light cavalry.

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Alexander, calling on his men to show their courage, then led his right wing across the river.

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As they reached the middle of the river, the Greeks came under a hail of javelins,

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darts and arrows from the Persian line. Those that made it to the far bank were immediately charged by the Persian cavalry.

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🎶

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Alexander was in the thick of the fighting.

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“he attacked where the whole mass of their cavalry and leaders were stationed.

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Around him a desperate conflict raged... horses were jammed against horses and men against men,

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the Macedonians striving to drive the Persians away from the river bank, the Persians determined to prevent them crossing

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and to push them back into the river.”

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🎶

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Alexander's attack seemed reckless, but he was buying time for the rest of his army to cross the river,

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including the irresistible Macedonian phalanx.

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Then suddenly Alexander was fighting for his life, charged by two Persian nobles.

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“Rhoesaces rode up to Alexander and struck him on the head with his sword,

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breaking off a piece of his helmet. But the helmet broke the force of the blow, and Alexander struck him down with his lance.

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Then, from behind, Spithridates raised his sword against the king, but Black Cleitus,

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son of Dropidas, anticipated his blow, struck his arm, and cut it off, sword and all.”

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Now the Greek army was across the river, and the Persian cavalry faced a wall of Macedonian spears. Most turned and fled.

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🎶

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The speed and shock of Alexander's attack meant Persia's Greek mercenaries hadn't even had time to join the battle.

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Alexander, in a blood-rage, or possibly regarding these Greeks as traitors, ignored their appeals for mercy.

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The mercenaries were surrounded on all sides, and massacred.

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Alexander had won a great victory. Asia Minor now lay at his mercy.

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But the Persian Empire was still a land of immense wealth and power.

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Already it was mobilising its vast resources to face him.

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If Alexander was to conquer this empire and take his place in history, he'd next have to face Darius, King of Kings, himself...

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Now, as Alexander approached Sardis, capital of the Persian province of Lydia, its commander surrendered without a fight.

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But before Alexander could advance further, he needed to neutralise Persian naval power

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Persia had a powerful fleet, with major naval bases around the eastern Mediterranean - that

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could potentially cut his lines of communication back to Greece.

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Rather than challenge the Persians at sea, Alexander decided to attack their nearest bases:

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the Greek coastal cities of Miletus and Halicarnassus.

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Both put up determined resistance, but were taken by winter.

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The following spring of 333 BC, Alexander continued his advance into Lycia... and Phrygia.

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At Gordium, he was shown the legendary 'Gordian Knot' – a prophesy said that whoever could unpick it would rule all Asia.

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Alexander simply took his sword, and sliced it in half.

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Meanwhile Memnon of Rhodes, a skilled Greek general in Persian service, led Persian warships into the Aegean,

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and captured the islands of Chios and Lesbos.

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But after Memnon's sudden death from illness, the offensive was abandoned.

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The Battle of Issus

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18 months had passed since Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont and invaded the Persian Empire.

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Now Alexander led his men into Cilicia... and was soon poised to cross the Nur Mountains into Syria.

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But then the main Persian army, led by King Darius III himself, emerged behind the Greek army, to the north.

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Darius was determined to trap and destroy Alexander's army, which he outnumbered almost 2 to 1.

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So he blocked Alexander's only escape route, by moving his army to the coastal plain near Issus,

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just 6 miles wide from mountains to sea.

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The narrow battlefield would force Alexander to fight, but it also prevented Darius exploiting his huge numerical advantage.

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His army, by some estimates, was up to 100,000 strong, and contained some of the finest soldiers in his vast empire

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- including 10,000 of his own household troops, known as the Immortals.

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His best cavalry were massed on his right, towards the sea, where the ground was better for horses.

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His best infantry, his Greek mercenary hoplites, formed the centre.

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Persian infantry formed his left wing.

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Alexander deployed his own army for battle, once again entrusting his left wing, nearest the sea, to Parmenion

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, with the Greek cavalry and infantry.

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In the centre, as always, was the Macedonian phalanx.

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Alexander positioned himself and his best troops on the right wing, toward the mountain slopes –

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his elite Agriane javelin-throwers, his archers, and behind them, the Hypaspists and the Companion cavalry.

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When Alexander saw the strength of the Persian cavalry facing Parmenion on the left,

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he moved across his Thessalian cavalry to reinforce him.

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Despite his overwhelming numbers, Darius held his position behind a small river, the Pinarus, and waited for Alexander to attack.

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He didn't have to wait long.

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Alexander called out to his men, urging them to fight bravely, picking out some by name.

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Then, at the head of his army's right wing, he charged.

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Once again, the speed and shock of the Macedonian advance sent the enemy reeling back.

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But in the centre of the battlefield, the Macedonian phalanx was in trouble.

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In its effort to keep up with Alexander, its formation had become disordered.

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Now, in fierce fighting, with Darius's Greek mercenaries, the phalanx was slowly being driven back.

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Alexander, seeing the danger, regrouped, and led the Companions in a headlong charge straight at the Persian centre.

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The Greek mercenaries, threatened on their flank, were soon in disarray,

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and the Macedonian phalanx was able to resume its advance.

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Alexander fought his way towards the Great King, Darius himself.

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Rather than face this apparently mad and fearless Macedonian king, Darius fled the battlefield in his royal chariot.

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Meanwhile the Macedonian left wing, under Parmenion, was in a desperate fight against the best of the Persian cavalry.

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If the Persians could break through here, they could envelop Alexander's army, and snatch victory from the jaws of defeat.

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But Parmenion and his troops fought doggedly, and continued to hold the Persians at bay.

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As the news that Darius had fled spread among his troops, they abandoned the fight, and tried to save themselves.

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The battle turned into a massacre.

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Ptolemy, one of the Macedonian commanders, told Alexander there were so many Persian dead,

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his men had used them to fill a deep ravine, so they could cross over it.

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Son of Amun

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The Battle of Issus was a stunning victory for Alexander.

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And amongst the spoils of victory, were Darius's wife, mother, and three children, all taken alive, and well treated by Alexander.

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With the Persian field army in retreat, Alexander now turned to subduing the western territories of the Persian empire.

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The next year, 332, the coastal cities of Phoenicia submitted to Alexander

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– ending Persian naval power in the Mediterranean.

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But the island-city of Tyre resisted.

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Tyre's defenders fought bravely and skilfully – even when Alexander began building a causeway to the island,

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protected by two giant siege towers... which they counter-attacked with fire ships.

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But after seven months, the city walls were breached, and Tyre fell. Most of its citizens were killed or enslaved.

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Gaza too was taken by siege.

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Alexander continued to Pelusium, on the Nile Delta,

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where the Persian governor of Egypt surrendered the entire province to Alexander, along with the royal treasury.

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At Memphis, priests of this ancient land welcomed Alexander as their liberator from Persian rule, and crowned him Pharaoh.

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At the mouth of the Nile, he founded a new city, Alexandria...

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then travelled to the desert oracle of Siwah, where, according to some accounts, the priests welcomed

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him as son of Amun, king of the gods.

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Alexander returned east to Tyre... where in 331 BC, he received news of trouble back home.

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Despite his great victories over the Persians, many Greeks regarded Alexander as a tyrant.

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King Agis of Sparta, with Persian support, now launched a revolt against Macedonia.

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Antipater, Alexander's commander in Greece, was already dealing with rebellion in Thrace.

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But he quickly marched south... and met Agis in battle near the city of Megalopolis.

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Even the legendary Spartans were now no match for Macedonian military power.

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The Spartan army was crushed. King Agis himself was among the fallen.

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With his base in Greece secure once more, Alexander advanced towards the Persian heartlands,

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seeking a final showdown with Darius.

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He received a letter from the Persian king, offering him a fortune in gold,

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his daughter in marriage, and half his empire in exchange for peace.

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But Alexander's stunning victories, all the oracles and acclamations, had now convinced him that his destiny was to rule the world...

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He rejected the Persian king's offer. He didn't want half the empire - he was coming to take it all...

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In 334 BC, Alexander, 21 year-old ruler of the small Greek kingdom of Macedonia,

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led an invasion of the vast Persian Empire.

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It seemed impossible odds, but thanks to Greek military dominance, and Alexander's fearless leadership,

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he won two great battles against the Persians… at the River Granicus, and at Issus.

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Having subdued Persian lands west of the Euphrates River, he now headed east into the empire's heartlands,

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seeking a final showdown with the Persian King, Darius III.

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Receiving news that a great Persian army, led by Darius, had assembled at Gaugemela,

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near modern Mosul in Iraq – he made straight for it.

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This was Darius's last chance to stop Alexander – and Alexander's chance to smash Persian power once and for all.

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The Battle of Gaugamela

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Darius had chosen to fight on open ground, where his advantage in numbers would be more telling.

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His soldiers had also worked hard to clear and flatten the terrain, to make it suitable for Persian war chariots.

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By modern estimates, the Persian Army was between 50 and 80,000 strong,

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and made up of contingents from across the empire:

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infantry from Syria and Babylonia...

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cavalry from Armenia, India and Central Asia...

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up to 200 scythed chariots... even a handful of war elephants.

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Alexander's army was smaller, and may have been outnumbered by as much as two to one.

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He deployed his units in their usual formation:

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On the left flank, Thracian and Thessalian cavalry, commanded by Parmenion.

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In the centre, the Macedonian veterans of the phalanx – each armed with their 18 foot sarissa pike.

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On the right flank, Alexander with his elite cavalry, the Companions; and his best infantry, the hypaspists.

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These were the units with which Alexander planned to launch his main attack.

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Greek hoplites formed a second line, and supported both wings – which were angled back,

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to guard against encirclement by the Persians.

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The battle began when Alexander led his wing out to the right – a move that took the Persians by surprise.

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Could Alexander really be trying to encircle their huge army?

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The Persians mirrored his movement, taking troops away from their centre, to outflank Alexander,

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and prevent him leaving the area they'd cleared for the Persian chariots.

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But Alexander's unusual manoeuvre was a trap - to entice the Persians to weaken their centre.

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When he saw that it had worked, he ordered his Greek cavalry to charge, to keep the Persians fixed in position.

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A giant cavalry battle developed on the right wing.

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Darius, meanwhile, judging this to be the decisive moment, unleashed his chariots.

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But expert Agrianes javelin-throwers took out horses and crews

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– while the Greek infantry opened lanes, allowing the chariots to pass harmlessly through.

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Now Alexander led his Companion cavalry, and parts of the Macedonian phalanx,

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in a headlong charge straight at the weakened Persian centre, fighting his way towards Darius himself.

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The sudden ferocity of Alexander's assault threw the Persians into panic

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– the centre of the army broke and ran - King Darius himself leading the rout.

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But Alexander's left wing was in serious trouble – Parmenion, facing a huge onslaught by Persian cavalry,

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was virtually surrounded - Indian and Scythian horsemen had even ridden through a gap in the Greek line

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– but rather than wheeling and attacking the Greeks from behind, they'd carried straight on to loot their camp.

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Parmenion sent a desperate appeal to Alexander for help.

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The King abandoned his pursuit of Darius, regrouped, and charged the Persian right wing.

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It was the hardest and bloodiest fighting of the battle – claiming the lives of sixty of Alexander's Companions.

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Finally, as news of Darius's flight spread across the battlefield, the last Persian horsemen turned and fled.

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The Battle of Gaugamela was a stunning and complete victory for Alexander.

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According to ancient sources, he lost just a few hundred men, while the Persians lost thousands.

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Alexander had routed Darius's great army, and now the road to Babylon – the empire's main capital - lay open.

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The Macedonian king entered the great city in triumph, recognised by Persian officials as its new rightful ruler.

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So too at the city of Susa, where Alexander ceremonially took his seat upon the royal throne of Persia.

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In the Zagros mountains, at a pass known as the Persian Gates,

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a courageous Persian force held up Alexander's army for a month.

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The Greeks eventually found a mountain path that bypassed their position,

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allowing them to encircle and wipe out the defenders.

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In early 330 BC, Alexander reached Persepolis, the empire's ceremonial capital.

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Alexander wanted to appear as a liberator to the Persians – as a legitimate successor to King Darius

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- but now, he ordered Persepolis to be pillaged and burnt – retribution for the Persian invasion of Greece,

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and the burning of Athens' sacred temples in 480 BC.

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Alexander now headed north into Media, where Darius had taken refuge in the royal city of Ecbatana.

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Alexander was determined to capture Darius – but the fugitive king fled east in the hope of raising a new army

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in the provinces of Parthia, Bactria, and Sogdia.

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It was not to be. As Alexander closed in, the Persian king was murdered by one of his own governors,

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Bessus, who then proclaimed himself the empire’s new ruler.

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Alexander gave orders for Darius to be buried in the royal tombs of Persepolis, alongside his ancestors.

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Then he paused to organise his vast new empire.

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Alexander appointed viceroys to rule the provinces on his behalf,

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keeping several Persians - who had sworn loyalty - in their posts.

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Then he resumed his march east. His goal: to find and kill the usurper Bessus...

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subjugate the empire's eastern provinces... and reach the far edge of the world...

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In 330 BC, Alexander continued his march east.

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His goal: to find and kill Bessus - a Persian usurper, claiming to be the rightful king

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– and to subjugate the empire's eastern provinces...

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Alexander headed first for Aria, today part of Afghanistan, where the Persian governor Satibarzanes

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had launched a revolt – after initially pretending to submit to Alexander.

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The rebellion was crushed, and Satibarzanes killed in single combat by a Greek cavalry officer.

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Nearby, Alexander founded the city of Alexandria Ariana, modern Herat – one of around a dozen cities

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that Alexander would eventually found, almost all bearing his name.

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Alexander marched on to Phrada.

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The Macedonian court had a long tradition of plots and assassination.

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Six years before, Alexander's own father, King Philip, had been murdered by his bodyguard.

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He was now informed that Philotas, commander of his Companion Cavalry,

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had uncovered a plot to assassinate Alexander, but kept it secret.

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Philotas, and his father Parmenion, were among the most respected of Alexander's commanders,

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and had played crucial roles in all his great victories.

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But when Philotas confessed under torture, Alexander had him executed.

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then sent assassins back to Ecbatana, where Parmenion was governor, to kill him before he even heard of his son's death,

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and had a chance to turn against Alexander.

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In 329, Alexander resumed his pursuit of Bessus.

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En route, he founded the city of Alexandria Arachosia – modern Kandahar, in southern Afghanistan.

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As he reached Kunduz, Bessus was betrayed by his own men, and handed over in chains.

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Alexander sent him back to Persia for execution, as a king-slayer.

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Alexander pushed on into modern Tajikistan, where the Sogdians rose up against him.

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He had to fight off attacks by local tribes, and take several towns by assault.

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On the banks of the Jaxartes River, he founded the city of Alexandria-Eschate, meaning Alexandria 'the Furthest'

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– so-named because he had, at last, reached the limit of the Persian Empire.

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This frontier was frequently raided by nomads, known to the Greeks as Scythians.

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Alexander lured them into a decisive battle near the Jaxartes.

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The result was a crushing victory for the Macedonian king, that put an end to the raids.

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But fighting against Bactrian and Sogdian tribes continued, frustrating Alexander,

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and tying him down in a difficult guerilla war.

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Tyrant

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By now, many of the Macedonian troops were unhappy with Alexander.

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Most had not seen their homes in years, but their king seemed bent on conquest without end.

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What was worse, he'd begun to adopt the rituals and dress of their defeated Persian enemy

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– customs they viewed as effeminate, and decadent.

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At Maracanda, modern Samarkand, after a furious, drunken argument, Alexander killed Cleitus the Black.

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Cleitus had been one of Alexander's best generals, and the man who'd saved his life at the Battle of the Granicus.

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Alexander was full of remorse, but his growing arrogance was alienating more and more old comrades.

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When he tried to make his countrymen perform the traditional Persian ritual of proskynesis

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– prostrating themselves before the king - he crossed a line.

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To Greeks this was blasphemy – only a god was worthy of such respect - and Alexander was forced to back down.

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In Bactria, another plot to assassinate Alexander was uncovered. This time the ringleader was a royal page

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– one of the sons of Macedonian nobility who attended the king.

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Hermolaus had become murderously bitter towards Alexander over a perceived injustice. He and his accomplices were tortured,

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and then stoned to death.

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Callisthenes, Alexander's official historian, was also implicated in the conspiracy.

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He was thrown in prison, where he later died.

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That summer, in 327 - according to legend - Alexander became captivated by the beauty of Roxana, daughter of a Bactrian lord.

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Their marriage was also a sound political move, helping to end local revolt against his rule

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– and allowing him to continue his advance... into modern Pakistan, and India.

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To the Edge of the World

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Alexander now prepared to subdue the Persian Empire's most eastern provinces, which had yet to recognise his kingship.

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To do so he would first have to cross the Hindu Kush mountains and reach the Indus river valley.

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Advancing in two columns, his army won a series of skirmishes against the Aspasii and Assaceni,

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as they fought their way into what's now the Swat Valley of northern Pakistan.

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After a fierce siege, Alexander took the Assacenian capital of Massaga.

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According to legend it was ruled by a beautiful queen, Cleophis, who bore Alexander a son, and was allowed to keep her throne.

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The ruler of Taxila, near modern Islamabad, had formed an alliance with Alexander.

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Together they marched to face Porus, king of Pauravas, at the Battle of the Hydaspes.

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It was Alexander's costliest battle, as Porus's war elephants inflicted terrible casualties amongst the Greeks.

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But despite Porus's fearless leadership, the battle ended in a decisive victory for Alexander, winning him control of the Punjab.

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Alexander wanted to push on into India, to reach the great river which ancient Greek geographers said formed the edge of the world.

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But at the River Hyphasis, known today as the Beas, his army mutinied.

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His men had marched thousands of miles, fought countless battles, and not seen their homes in 8 years.

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They'd heard rumours of gigantic armies waiting for them in India.

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They refused to go any further.

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Alexander was furious, but had to turn the army around.

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He followed the rivers of the Punjab to the sea – a journey that took 10 months.

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On the way, he defeated the Mahlians, but while leading the assault on their capital, was wounded in the chest and nearly killed.

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After reaching the coast, part of the army under Nearchus, she boarded and returned by sea to Persia.

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sailing through the Strait Hormuz and swam to the Persian Gulf.

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It was one of the great ancient voyages of exploration, as these waters had been previously unknown to Greeks.

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Meanwhile Alexander led the rest of the army back by land through the Gedrosian desert,

47:16

today in southern Pakistan. But extreme heat and shortages of food and water led to terrible suffering,

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and many deaths among his army.

47:30

On his return to Persia, Alexander executed several of his viceroys and governors

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- men accused of ruling unjustly, and robbing temples and tombs, during his long absence in the east.

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At Susa, he arranged a magnificent mass-marriage of Macedonian officers to 80 Persian noblewomen,

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to strengthen bonds between his two kingdoms.

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Alexander himself married two Persian princesses.

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He also paid all his soldiers debts, and ordered 30,000 youths from across the empire to be trained in the Macedonian art of war.

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But at Opis, his Macedonian troops mutinied.

48:25

They were offended by Alexander's apparent preference for Persian advisors and Persian ways. Alexander had the ringleaders executed,

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and made a speech to the men, reminding them of the glories they'd won together,

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and leading eventually to an emotional reconciliation.

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At Ecbatana, Alexander's closest and most trusted friend, Hephaestion, died of fever.

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The king was grief stricken, went days without eating, and ordered a period of public mourning across the empire.

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Alexander waged a successful campaign against the mountain raiders of Cossaea,

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who not even the Persian kings had been able to subdue.

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Returning to Babylon, he was met by embassies from distant peoples,

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come to recognise his greatness – Aethiopians, Libyans, European Scythians, Lucanians, Etruscans, Gauls and Iberians.

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Alexander's Bactrian wife Roxana was now pregnant...

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But as he planned his next campaign, to Arabia and beyond, he developed a sudden fever,

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and died days later, aged just 32.

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The cause of Alexander's death has never been established. It may have been malaria, cholera, typhus... or poison.

50:18

The Successors

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Alexander died undefeated in battle. His reputation as a brilliant, fearless and daring military commander remains undimmed.

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His decade long campaign created one of the largest empires ever known, stretching from Greece to Pakistan.

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But it was vast and unstable, held together only by his own brilliance and name.

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Alexander left no plans for his succession, and his generals soon began fighting among themselves

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to carve out their own empires.

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In the Wars of the Successors, Alexander's widow Roxana and his young son were murdered.

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His own gold sarcophagus, en route to Macedonia for burial was hijacked, and ended up in Alexandria, in Egypt.

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Today, it's location remains one of the world's great unsolved mysteries.

51:31

Few men have ever had such an impact on the course of history as Alexander the Great.

51:39

The breath-taking achievements of his short life ushered in the Hellenistic Age,

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as Greek ideas spread across the territory of his former empire, fusing with local traditions to trigger

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new developments in art, science, government and language.

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Some of the successor kingdoms to his great empire were short-lived

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– others endured for centuries.. but all, in turn, would fall to new forces... and in the west, to the rising power of Rome.

52:28

Research and artwork for this video comes from Osprey Publishing's extensive range of books on ancient history.

52:35

Every Osprey book examines a particular battle, campaign or combat unit in authoritative, meticulous detail.

52:43

And with more than 3,000 titles, they cover everything from ancient warfare to modern conflict.

52:49

Visit their website to see their online catalogue.

52:53

Thank you to all the Patreon supporters who made this video possible, and to the channel ‘Invicta’

53:00

– find out more about key moments from the past in their ‘Moments in History’ series.

53:07

Joachim wrote and translated

53:15

He writes and translates into several languages: Joachim Moczko

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