WEBVTT 00:00:00.520 --> 00:00:05.599 Most people around the world know the 00:00:02.319 --> 00:00:08.359 country of Nepal for one thing, Everest, 00:00:05.599 --> 00:00:10.160 the summit of the world. That photograph 00:00:08.359 --> 00:00:12.279 on the poster, that bucket list 00:00:10.160 --> 00:00:14.359 mountain, and the fact that it's used as 00:00:12.279 --> 00:00:17.199 a superlative for anything remotely 00:00:14.359 --> 00:00:20.239 challenging. But, despite the grandeur 00:00:17.199 --> 00:00:22.679 of this epic mountain, it kind of steals 00:00:20.239 --> 00:00:25.279 the spotlight from the rest of Nepal. 00:00:22.679 --> 00:00:27.719 Just knowing Nepal for Everest strips it 00:00:25.280 --> 00:00:29.280 of almost everything that makes it even 00:00:27.719 --> 00:00:31.519 more remarkable. 00:00:29.280 --> 00:00:32.480 Because Nepal is so much more than 00:00:31.519 --> 00:00:34.320 Everest. 00:00:32.479 --> 00:00:36.000 Surprisingly, it's a geographically 00:00:34.320 --> 00:00:38.920 diverse country. 00:00:36.000 --> 00:00:41.480 In the span of only 200 km, the land 00:00:38.920 --> 00:00:43.840 rises from the subtropical lowlands to 00:00:41.479 --> 00:00:46.079 the highest point on the planet. 00:00:43.840 --> 00:00:49.840 That is an elevation gain of nearly 9 00:00:46.079 --> 00:00:52.239 km. In those 200 km, you pass through 00:00:49.840 --> 00:00:55.400 several different climate zones, from 00:00:52.240 --> 00:00:57.920 alpine tundra to jungles, from monsoon 00:00:55.399 --> 00:01:00.159 forest with elephants and rhinos, 00:00:57.920 --> 00:01:02.280 through terraced hillsides and cloud 00:01:00.159 --> 00:01:04.878 forests, and through high-altitude 00:01:02.280 --> 00:01:07.079 grasslands and glacial valleys. 00:01:04.879 --> 00:01:09.160 So, let's today talk about the true 00:01:07.079 --> 00:01:12.599 geography of Nepal 00:01:09.159 --> 00:01:12.599 in all its glory. 00:01:50.200 --> 00:01:54.200 So, when we take a look at Nepal on a 00:01:52.319 --> 00:01:57.239 map, the first thing you'll notice is 00:01:54.200 --> 00:02:00.079 the shape, a long, narrow rectangle. 00:01:57.239 --> 00:02:03.839 It's oriented east to west, roughly 900 00:02:00.079 --> 00:02:06.159 km long and 200 km wide. To the south is 00:02:03.840 --> 00:02:08.319 a long, open border with India. And to 00:02:06.159 --> 00:02:09.960 the north is the Tibetan Plateau, the 00:02:08.319 --> 00:02:11.840 roof of the world. 00:02:09.960 --> 00:02:13.879 What this means is that Nepal is 00:02:11.840 --> 00:02:15.719 landlocked, completely surrounded by 00:02:13.879 --> 00:02:18.159 just two countries. 00:02:15.719 --> 00:02:20.400 For a nation of over 30 million people, 00:02:18.159 --> 00:02:21.879 this geographical reality has profound 00:02:20.400 --> 00:02:24.319 consequences. 00:02:21.879 --> 00:02:26.560 Most trade, most imports, and all access 00:02:24.319 --> 00:02:28.879 to the sea must pass through India, or 00:02:26.560 --> 00:02:31.840 to a much lesser extent, through the 00:02:28.879 --> 00:02:33.519 long and difficult routes into China. 00:02:31.840 --> 00:02:35.280 In terms of its size, it covers about 00:02:33.520 --> 00:02:36.640 147,000 00:02:35.280 --> 00:02:38.120 sq km. 00:02:36.639 --> 00:02:40.759 About the same size as neighboring 00:02:38.120 --> 00:02:43.240 Bangladesh. By area, it's small, but by 00:02:40.759 --> 00:02:46.079 topographic range, it's extraordinary. 00:02:43.240 --> 00:02:49.159 Home to eight of the world's 14 peaks 00:02:46.080 --> 00:02:53.200 over 8,000 m, including Everest, 00:02:49.159 --> 00:02:56.879 Kangchenjunga, Lhotse, Makalu, Cho Oyu, 00:02:53.199 --> 00:02:59.959 Dhaulagiri, Manaslu, and Annapurna. All 00:02:56.879 --> 00:03:03.159 epic peaks. No other country on Earth 00:02:59.959 --> 00:03:06.239 has eight 8,000ers. Those being peaks 00:03:03.159 --> 00:03:08.639 over 8,000 m high. But like I mentioned 00:03:06.239 --> 00:03:10.759 previously, Nepal is a lot more than the 00:03:08.639 --> 00:03:12.719 mountains. The Himalayas that run across 00:03:10.759 --> 00:03:15.120 the country are just the northern third 00:03:12.719 --> 00:03:17.519 of Nepal. The country is usually divided 00:03:15.120 --> 00:03:20.120 into three rough horizontal zones 00:03:17.519 --> 00:03:21.800 running east to west. The Terai lowlands 00:03:20.120 --> 00:03:24.039 in the south, the foothills of the 00:03:21.800 --> 00:03:26.640 Himalayas in the center, and the tall 00:03:24.039 --> 00:03:28.919 Himalayas in the north. Each zone is a 00:03:26.639 --> 00:03:30.399 different world, different climate, 00:03:28.919 --> 00:03:32.559 different ecology, and different 00:03:30.400 --> 00:03:35.519 culture. Which means to understand 00:03:32.560 --> 00:03:37.080 Nepal, you have to understand all three. 00:03:35.519 --> 00:03:38.959 So, let's do that, starting at the 00:03:37.080 --> 00:03:40.840 bottom, the Terai. 00:03:38.959 --> 00:03:43.239 Now, most people's mental image of Nepal 00:03:40.840 --> 00:03:45.039 begins somewhere in the high hills. You 00:03:43.239 --> 00:03:47.480 may have seen images of prayer flags 00:03:45.039 --> 00:03:50.159 strung between peaks, or monasteries 00:03:47.479 --> 00:03:52.359 climbing to clifftops. But the Terai 00:03:50.159 --> 00:03:54.879 doesn't fit that image. 00:03:52.360 --> 00:03:56.320 It's the flat southern strip of Nepal, a 00:03:54.879 --> 00:03:58.319 narrow plain sitting between the 00:03:56.319 --> 00:04:00.680 Himalayan foothills to the north and the 00:03:58.319 --> 00:04:02.639 Indian border to the south. It is the 00:04:00.680 --> 00:04:04.719 northern continuation of the great 00:04:02.639 --> 00:04:06.799 Indo-Gangetic Plain, one of the most 00:04:04.719 --> 00:04:09.240 fertile and densely populated 00:04:06.800 --> 00:04:12.200 agricultural landscapes on Earth. In 00:04:09.240 --> 00:04:13.480 Nepal, it is roughly 30 to 50 km wide 00:04:12.199 --> 00:04:16.079 and extends the full length of the 00:04:13.479 --> 00:04:18.719 country, east to west. Elevations in 00:04:16.079 --> 00:04:21.239 this region are low, mostly between 60 00:04:18.720 --> 00:04:23.720 and 300 m above sea level. The climate 00:04:21.238 --> 00:04:25.918 is subtropical, hot summers but cool 00:04:23.720 --> 00:04:27.760 winters, and a monsoon season from June 00:04:25.918 --> 00:04:29.279 to September that dumps enormous 00:04:27.759 --> 00:04:31.079 quantities of rain. 00:04:29.279 --> 00:04:32.879 This region can feel oppressively humid 00:04:31.079 --> 00:04:35.240 in summer with temperatures regularly 00:04:32.879 --> 00:04:36.959 exceeding 40° C. 00:04:35.240 --> 00:04:38.960 But this climate produces extraordinary 00:04:36.959 --> 00:04:41.279 biological richness. 00:04:38.959 --> 00:04:43.839 This region is home to Chitwan National 00:04:41.279 --> 00:04:46.359 Park, one of the finest wildlife areas 00:04:43.839 --> 00:04:48.319 in all of Asia. It protects a large 00:04:46.360 --> 00:04:50.360 remnant of the subtropical grasslands 00:04:48.319 --> 00:04:52.040 and riverine forest that once covered 00:04:50.360 --> 00:04:55.040 this entire region. 00:04:52.040 --> 00:04:57.120 Here live the one-horned rhinoceros, 00:04:55.040 --> 00:04:59.319 a species that came perilously close to 00:04:57.120 --> 00:05:01.360 extinction in the 20th century but has 00:04:59.319 --> 00:05:03.918 made a remarkable recovery in Nepal's 00:05:01.360 --> 00:05:06.879 protected areas. Also here, we find 00:05:03.918 --> 00:05:08.918 Bengal tigers and the extremely rare 00:05:06.879 --> 00:05:11.319 gharials, one of the strangest-looking 00:05:08.918 --> 00:05:13.639 crocodilian species on Earth. 00:05:11.319 --> 00:05:15.120 Sloth bears and leopards also call this 00:05:13.639 --> 00:05:17.039 area home. 00:05:15.120 --> 00:05:18.639 Now, surprisingly, Nepal is one of the 00:05:17.040 --> 00:05:20.760 few countries in the world where tiger 00:05:18.639 --> 00:05:23.159 populations are actually growing. 00:05:20.759 --> 00:05:26.240 A census conducted in 2022 recorded over 00:05:23.160 --> 00:05:28.800 350 wild tigers in the country, nearly 00:05:26.240 --> 00:05:30.560 double the number of a decade earlier. 00:05:28.800 --> 00:05:33.040 It is one of the genuine conservation 00:05:30.560 --> 00:05:35.480 success stories of our era. This region 00:05:33.040 --> 00:05:37.879 is also Nepal's breadbasket. Despite 00:05:35.480 --> 00:05:40.040 covering only about 17% of the country's 00:05:37.879 --> 00:05:42.120 land area, it produces roughly half of 00:05:40.040 --> 00:05:45.280 Nepal's agricultural output. There's 00:05:42.120 --> 00:05:46.840 rice, wheat, sugarcane, and lentils that 00:05:45.279 --> 00:05:48.639 grow here in the rich alluvial soil 00:05:46.839 --> 00:05:51.319 deposited over millennia by rivers 00:05:48.639 --> 00:05:53.159 flowing south of the Himalayas. 00:05:51.319 --> 00:05:55.879 This region of Nepal is home to the 00:05:53.160 --> 00:05:57.800 Madhesi people. They make up about 30% 00:05:55.879 --> 00:05:59.519 of the country's population and are 00:05:57.800 --> 00:06:01.720 predominantly Hindu. 00:05:59.519 --> 00:06:03.680 Now, the Tarai is where Nepal meets 00:06:01.720 --> 00:06:05.680 India. And for the majority of the 00:06:03.680 --> 00:06:08.120 population here, this is not really a 00:06:05.680 --> 00:06:10.280 border checkpoint, but more of a porous 00:06:08.120 --> 00:06:12.720 way of living. Many communities straddle 00:06:10.279 --> 00:06:14.559 the border. Families are divided by it. 00:06:12.720 --> 00:06:17.440 Languages, customs, and religious 00:06:14.560 --> 00:06:19.879 practices flow across it. Now, let's 00:06:17.439 --> 00:06:21.959 move north. Between the flat Tarai and 00:06:19.879 --> 00:06:24.600 the soaring Himalayas, lies a part of 00:06:21.959 --> 00:06:27.439 Nepal where most Nepalese have lived for 00:06:24.600 --> 00:06:29.640 most of its history, the middle hills. 00:06:27.439 --> 00:06:32.000 This is a zone of complex and folded 00:06:29.639 --> 00:06:34.199 terrain. These ridges and valleys 00:06:32.000 --> 00:06:35.918 running roughly east to west cut across 00:06:34.199 --> 00:06:38.439 by rivers flowing south from the 00:06:35.918 --> 00:06:40.319 mountains towards India. Elevations here 00:06:38.439 --> 00:06:43.000 typically range from 300 m to about 00:06:40.319 --> 00:06:46.079 3,000 m with most settlements clustered 00:06:43.000 --> 00:06:48.079 between 1,000 and 2,500 m. High enough 00:06:46.079 --> 00:06:50.279 to escape the Tarai's heat, but low 00:06:48.079 --> 00:06:51.959 enough to still grow some crops. The 00:06:50.279 --> 00:06:53.639 landscape of the middle hills is defined 00:06:51.959 --> 00:06:55.719 above almost anything else by one 00:06:53.639 --> 00:06:57.680 feature, terraces. 00:06:55.720 --> 00:06:59.919 Almost every hillside in the inhabited 00:06:57.680 --> 00:07:02.040 middle hills region has been terraced, 00:06:59.918 --> 00:07:04.079 cut into horizontal steps to create flat 00:07:02.040 --> 00:07:06.480 agricultural land on slopes that would 00:07:04.079 --> 00:07:07.959 otherwise be impossible to farm. 00:07:06.480 --> 00:07:09.520 Now, this practice of terracing in this 00:07:07.959 --> 00:07:12.120 region has been accumulating for over 00:07:09.519 --> 00:07:13.680 2,000 years. Generations of farmers 00:07:12.120 --> 00:07:15.680 cutting into the hillsides, building 00:07:13.680 --> 00:07:17.480 retaining walls of stone, channeling 00:07:15.680 --> 00:07:18.560 water from one terrace to the next. The 00:07:17.480 --> 00:07:20.360 result is one of the most 00:07:18.560 --> 00:07:22.120 interesting-looking agricultural 00:07:20.360 --> 00:07:24.199 landscapes on Earth. 00:07:22.120 --> 00:07:25.680 Rice is the staple crop here. Where 00:07:24.199 --> 00:07:28.399 water can be brought to irrigate the 00:07:25.680 --> 00:07:29.879 terraces, paddy rice dominates. On drier 00:07:28.399 --> 00:07:32.519 slopes and higher elevations, there's 00:07:29.879 --> 00:07:34.000 millet, maize, wheat, and buckwheat. The 00:07:32.519 --> 00:07:36.199 agricultural calendar is dictated 00:07:34.000 --> 00:07:38.040 entirely by the monsoon here. The 00:07:36.199 --> 00:07:39.918 arrival of the rains in June triggers 00:07:38.040 --> 00:07:42.439 planting. The end of the monsoon in 00:07:39.918 --> 00:07:44.479 September and October brings harvest. 00:07:42.439 --> 00:07:46.839 Within the middle hills, one place above 00:07:44.480 --> 00:07:49.480 all others has defined Nepali history 00:07:46.839 --> 00:07:51.759 and culture, the Kathmandu Valley. 00:07:49.480 --> 00:07:54.200 The Kathmandu Valley is a broad, flat 00:07:51.759 --> 00:07:56.319 basin sitting at around 1,300 m above 00:07:54.199 --> 00:07:58.639 sea level. Roughly oval in shape, 00:07:56.319 --> 00:08:00.480 surrounded by hills on all sides, it is, 00:07:58.639 --> 00:08:03.719 geologically speaking, a former lake 00:08:00.480 --> 00:08:05.840 bed, making it extraordinarily fertile. 00:08:03.720 --> 00:08:09.120 The Valley is home to Kathmandu, 00:08:05.839 --> 00:08:10.679 Lalitpur, and Bhaktapur, three ancient 00:08:09.120 --> 00:08:13.959 cities that were, until the 18th 00:08:10.680 --> 00:08:16.400 century, three separate rival kingdoms. 00:08:13.959 --> 00:08:19.079 The Kathmandu Valley today contains 00:08:16.399 --> 00:08:22.000 seven UNESCO World Heritage Sites, all 00:08:19.079 --> 00:08:23.800 within roughly 30 km of each other. 00:08:22.000 --> 00:08:25.839 Now, the Valley's position also made it 00:08:23.800 --> 00:08:27.680 a trade crossroads, sitting in the 00:08:25.839 --> 00:08:29.319 middle hills between the Indian plains 00:08:27.680 --> 00:08:31.040 and the Tibetan Plateau. 00:08:29.319 --> 00:08:33.038 It was a natural stopping point on the 00:08:31.040 --> 00:08:35.158 ancient trade routes carrying salt, 00:08:33.038 --> 00:08:37.840 wool, and grain south from Tibet, and 00:08:35.158 --> 00:08:39.759 cotton and spices north from India. 00:08:37.840 --> 00:08:41.759 Newar merchants controlled this trade 00:08:39.759 --> 00:08:44.159 for centuries and grew extraordinarily 00:08:41.759 --> 00:08:46.720 wealthy. That wealth built the famous 00:08:44.159 --> 00:08:48.399 temples in this region. Today, Kathmandu 00:08:46.720 --> 00:08:50.960 is the capital of Nepal and home to 00:08:48.399 --> 00:08:52.639 nearly 1.5 million people in the city 00:08:50.960 --> 00:08:55.639 proper, and with the greater Valley 00:08:52.639 --> 00:08:57.480 approaching 3.5 million. In its chaotic, 00:08:55.639 --> 00:08:59.679 traffic-choked, smog-hazed, and 00:08:57.480 --> 00:09:02.080 endlessly alive city. 00:08:59.679 --> 00:09:05.319 The city core survives alongside what 00:09:02.080 --> 00:09:07.360 looks like endless concrete sprawl. But, 00:09:05.320 --> 00:09:09.839 the beauty of the city is that on clear 00:09:07.360 --> 00:09:12.919 days, if you look to the north, the 00:09:09.839 --> 00:09:15.080 Himalayas are right there, towering over 00:09:12.919 --> 00:09:17.319 the city of Kathmandu. 00:09:15.080 --> 00:09:19.879 An epic reminder that this busy, 00:09:17.320 --> 00:09:22.240 complicated city sits at the base of the 00:09:19.879 --> 00:09:24.039 tallest mountain system on the planet. 00:09:22.240 --> 00:09:26.120 The middle hills are cut through by a 00:09:24.039 --> 00:09:29.279 series of major river systems, the 00:09:26.120 --> 00:09:30.679 Koshi, the Gandaki, and the Karnali. All 00:09:29.279 --> 00:09:32.279 of them drain from the Himalayas 00:09:30.679 --> 00:09:34.279 southward through the hills and into the 00:09:32.279 --> 00:09:35.199 Terai, and then eventually the Ganges 00:09:34.279 --> 00:09:37.199 River. 00:09:35.200 --> 00:09:39.400 These rivers are among the most powerful 00:09:37.200 --> 00:09:41.200 on Earth in terms of sediment load. They 00:09:39.399 --> 00:09:43.799 carry millions of tons of eroded 00:09:41.200 --> 00:09:45.800 mountain material downstream every year, 00:09:43.799 --> 00:09:47.919 building the great alluvial plains of 00:09:45.799 --> 00:09:50.359 northern India. For the people of the 00:09:47.919 --> 00:09:53.120 hills, these rivers are both lifelines 00:09:50.360 --> 00:09:55.600 and barriers. They provide water, fish, 00:09:53.120 --> 00:09:57.519 and in some places hydroelectric power. 00:09:55.600 --> 00:09:59.279 But the deep gorges they carve have 00:09:57.519 --> 00:10:01.399 historically isolated communities from 00:09:59.279 --> 00:10:03.319 each other. A village on one side of the 00:10:01.399 --> 00:10:05.159 gorge might only be a kilometer from 00:10:03.320 --> 00:10:08.040 village on the other side as the crow 00:10:05.159 --> 00:10:10.719 flies, but hours of descent and ascent 00:10:08.039 --> 00:10:12.240 on foot. This geographical fragmentation 00:10:10.720 --> 00:10:14.720 has produced Nepal's extraordinary 00:10:12.240 --> 00:10:17.000 ethnic and linguistic diversity. Over 00:10:14.720 --> 00:10:19.800 120 languages are spoken in a country 00:10:17.000 --> 00:10:22.080 the size of New York state. And now we 00:10:19.799 --> 00:10:23.599 move to the Himalayas. 00:10:22.080 --> 00:10:25.520 Now to understand the Himalayas, you 00:10:23.600 --> 00:10:27.680 need to look at the geologic history of 00:10:25.519 --> 00:10:30.120 this region. And for that, you need to 00:10:27.679 --> 00:10:31.399 start about 100 million years ago. That 00:10:30.120 --> 00:10:33.600 time, what is now the Indian 00:10:31.399 --> 00:10:36.600 subcontinent was not attached to Asia at 00:10:33.600 --> 00:10:38.279 all. It was an island, a vast northward 00:10:36.600 --> 00:10:40.720 drifting landmass. 00:10:38.279 --> 00:10:43.360 Over tens of millions of years, the 00:10:40.720 --> 00:10:45.440 Indian subcontinent drifted north. Then, 00:10:43.360 --> 00:10:47.519 around 50 million years ago, India 00:10:45.440 --> 00:10:49.080 collided with Asia. The seafloor 00:10:47.519 --> 00:10:51.559 sediments that had accumulated in it 00:10:49.080 --> 00:10:53.240 were compressed and crumpled upwards. 00:10:51.559 --> 00:10:55.279 And the collision, which actually is 00:10:53.240 --> 00:10:57.720 still ongoing, began building the 00:10:55.279 --> 00:10:59.759 Himalayas. The Indian plate is still 00:10:57.720 --> 00:11:03.399 pushing north. The Himalayas are still 00:10:59.759 --> 00:11:05.439 rising about 5 mm per year. Nepal sits 00:11:03.399 --> 00:11:07.079 directly on this collision zone. The 00:11:05.440 --> 00:11:09.200 ground beneath Kathmandu is being 00:11:07.080 --> 00:11:10.960 compressed, uplifted, and periodically 00:11:09.200 --> 00:11:12.839 shattered by earthquakes that release 00:11:10.960 --> 00:11:15.360 the accumulated stress of two continents 00:11:12.839 --> 00:11:18.080 grinding against each other. And this is 00:11:15.360 --> 00:11:20.519 exactly what caused the 2015 Gorkha 00:11:18.080 --> 00:11:24.480 earthquake in Nepal. It was magnitude 00:11:20.519 --> 00:11:25.838 7.8, and it killed nearly 9,000 people, 00:11:24.480 --> 00:11:27.519 destroyed hundreds of thousands of 00:11:25.839 --> 00:11:29.600 homes, and triggered avalanches on 00:11:27.519 --> 00:11:32.360 Everest that killed climbers at base 00:11:29.600 --> 00:11:34.600 camp. It was a reminder, brutal and 00:11:32.360 --> 00:11:36.519 sudden, that Nepal does not sit on 00:11:34.600 --> 00:11:38.200 stable ground. It sits on one of the 00:11:36.519 --> 00:11:39.319 most geologically active zones on the 00:11:38.200 --> 00:11:40.920 planet. 00:11:39.320 --> 00:11:43.400 And here is something that you might 00:11:40.919 --> 00:11:46.399 find interesting. On the summit of Mount 00:11:43.399 --> 00:11:48.799 Everest is limestone, marine limestone 00:11:46.399 --> 00:11:51.399 full of fossils of tiny sea creatures, 00:11:48.799 --> 00:11:53.199 meaning the highest point on Earth 00:11:51.399 --> 00:11:56.120 was actually at the bottom of a tropical 00:11:53.200 --> 00:11:59.840 sea 450 million years ago. Tectonic 00:11:56.120 --> 00:12:02.879 forces lifted it nearly 9 km. But 00:11:59.840 --> 00:12:05.480 Everest is just but one mountain. Nepal 00:12:02.879 --> 00:12:08.519 is home to eight of the world's 14 peaks 00:12:05.480 --> 00:12:10.720 above 8,000 m. Each one is distinct in 00:12:08.519 --> 00:12:13.039 its character, in its difficulty, and in 00:12:10.720 --> 00:12:15.800 the history of human attempts on it. 00:12:13.039 --> 00:12:18.799 There is Annapurna in the west of Nepal. 00:12:15.799 --> 00:12:21.079 It was the first 8,000er ever summited 00:12:18.799 --> 00:12:23.000 by French climbers Maurice Herzog and 00:12:21.080 --> 00:12:25.200 Louis Lachenal. It was the first 00:12:23.000 --> 00:12:27.879 mountain above 8,000 m that any human 00:12:25.200 --> 00:12:30.400 being had ever stood on. And it remains, 00:12:27.879 --> 00:12:33.159 statistically, the most dangerous of all 00:12:30.399 --> 00:12:35.919 the 8,000ers. Its death rate is among 00:12:33.159 --> 00:12:38.719 the highest of any major Himalayan peak. 00:12:35.919 --> 00:12:41.000 Nearby is Dhaulagiri, also in western 00:12:38.720 --> 00:12:43.040 Nepal. It rises so dramatically from the 00:12:41.000 --> 00:12:44.799 surrounding terrain that early European 00:12:43.039 --> 00:12:47.360 surveyors briefly considered it as the 00:12:44.799 --> 00:12:50.159 highest mountain in the world. While far 00:12:47.360 --> 00:12:52.080 to the east of Nepal sits Kangchenjunga, 00:12:50.159 --> 00:12:54.240 the third highest mountain in the world 00:12:52.080 --> 00:12:57.240 at 8,586 00:12:54.240 --> 00:12:59.839 m. It is worshipped as a sacred deity by 00:12:57.240 --> 00:13:01.839 the Sikkimese people. And by tradition, 00:12:59.839 --> 00:13:03.920 climbers stop a few meters short of the 00:13:01.839 --> 00:13:06.400 actual summit out of respect, a 00:13:03.919 --> 00:13:08.279 remarkable act of restraint at the edge 00:13:06.399 --> 00:13:09.600 of one of humanity's greatest physical 00:13:08.279 --> 00:13:12.480 challenges. 00:13:09.600 --> 00:13:14.240 But the Himalayas are not uninhabited. 00:13:12.480 --> 00:13:15.759 People have lived in these mountains for 00:13:14.240 --> 00:13:17.600 thousands of years, and their 00:13:15.759 --> 00:13:19.480 adaptations to extreme altitude are 00:13:17.600 --> 00:13:21.680 among the most remarkable in human 00:13:19.480 --> 00:13:23.639 biology. These Sherpa people, who 00:13:21.679 --> 00:13:26.000 predominantly reside in the Khumbu and 00:13:23.639 --> 00:13:28.360 the Solo regions of Nepal, migrated from 00:13:26.000 --> 00:13:30.399 eastern Tibet roughly 500 years ago and 00:13:28.360 --> 00:13:32.800 settled in the high valleys of Northeast 00:13:30.399 --> 00:13:34.919 Nepal. They are famous worldwide for 00:13:32.799 --> 00:13:36.879 their role in Himalayan mountaineering, 00:13:34.919 --> 00:13:39.399 but their geographical significance goes 00:13:36.879 --> 00:13:41.439 far beyond guiding expeditions. They 00:13:39.399 --> 00:13:43.799 developed a civilization at elevations 00:13:41.440 --> 00:13:45.320 that would debilitate most humans. 00:13:43.799 --> 00:13:46.839 Sherpa communities have been in this 00:13:45.320 --> 00:13:49.040 environment long enough to develop 00:13:46.840 --> 00:13:52.639 genetic adaptations to altitude, 00:13:49.039 --> 00:13:54.199 including a variant of the EPAS1 gene 00:13:52.639 --> 00:13:55.919 that allows their bodies to use oxygen 00:13:54.200 --> 00:13:57.920 more efficiently at low partial 00:13:55.919 --> 00:13:59.879 pressures. Above the settlements, the 00:13:57.919 --> 00:14:02.159 landscape becomes one of the most severe 00:13:59.879 --> 00:14:04.320 on Earth. The high Himalayan valleys and 00:14:02.159 --> 00:14:05.199 passes are home to glaciers, thousands 00:14:04.320 --> 00:14:07.480 of them, 00:14:05.200 --> 00:14:09.759 covering an estimated 5,000 square 00:14:07.480 --> 00:14:11.080 kilometers of Nepal. And these glaciers 00:14:09.759 --> 00:14:13.039 are the source of the rivers that 00:14:11.080 --> 00:14:16.080 sustain hundreds of millions of people 00:14:13.039 --> 00:14:18.199 downstream in Nepal, India, Bangladesh, 00:14:16.080 --> 00:14:20.160 and Pakistan. The Himalayan glacier 00:14:18.200 --> 00:14:23.440 system is sometimes called the third 00:14:20.159 --> 00:14:25.519 pole after Antarctica and the Arctic. 00:14:23.440 --> 00:14:27.440 Now, let's leave behind the high peaks 00:14:25.519 --> 00:14:30.559 of the Himalayas and talk a little bit 00:14:27.440 --> 00:14:32.280 about Nepal's climate. And you cannot 00:14:30.559 --> 00:14:34.838 talk about Nepal's climate without 00:14:32.279 --> 00:14:36.679 mentioning the monsoon. The South Asian 00:14:34.839 --> 00:14:38.760 monsoon is one of the most powerful 00:14:36.679 --> 00:14:40.439 atmospheric systems on Earth. It is 00:14:38.759 --> 00:14:42.480 driven by the differential heating 00:14:40.440 --> 00:14:44.960 between the Indian Ocean and the Asian 00:14:42.480 --> 00:14:46.680 landmass. In summer, the land heats 00:14:44.960 --> 00:14:48.360 faster than the ocean, 00:14:46.679 --> 00:14:51.519 causing the air over the Indian 00:14:48.360 --> 00:14:53.519 subcontinent to rise. This causes moist 00:14:51.519 --> 00:14:55.919 air from the Indian Ocean to take its 00:14:53.519 --> 00:14:57.639 place. When the air hits the Himalayas, 00:14:55.919 --> 00:15:00.439 the greatest topographic barrier on 00:14:57.639 --> 00:15:02.559 Earth, it's forced upward. It cools and 00:15:00.440 --> 00:15:04.720 releases its moisture as rainfall, 00:15:02.559 --> 00:15:06.639 enormous, torrential, and possibly 00:15:04.720 --> 00:15:08.720 months-long rainfall. 00:15:06.639 --> 00:15:11.039 The monsoon typically arrives in Nepal 00:15:08.720 --> 00:15:13.639 in June and lasts through September. And 00:15:11.039 --> 00:15:16.039 in that 4-month window, roughly 80% of 00:15:13.639 --> 00:15:17.919 Nepal's annual precipitation falls. 00:15:16.039 --> 00:15:20.120 Rivers that were quiet mountain streams 00:15:17.919 --> 00:15:22.719 become raging torrents. Terraced 00:15:20.120 --> 00:15:26.200 hillsides green up almost overnight. But 00:15:22.720 --> 00:15:28.200 the monsoon is not uniform across Nepal. 00:15:26.200 --> 00:15:30.960 The middle hills and the Terai region 00:15:28.200 --> 00:15:33.720 receive more than 2,000 mm of rain 00:15:30.960 --> 00:15:35.879 annually, and over 80% of that is during 00:15:33.720 --> 00:15:37.800 the monsoon. However, the complex 00:15:35.879 --> 00:15:39.480 topography of the middle hills region 00:15:37.799 --> 00:15:41.839 means that there's a lot of local 00:15:39.480 --> 00:15:44.200 variation. But the rain shadow effect 00:15:41.840 --> 00:15:45.920 behind the Himalayas is dramatic. The 00:15:44.200 --> 00:15:48.120 high valleys of northern Nepal, 00:15:45.919 --> 00:15:50.120 sheltered by the main Himalayan range, 00:15:48.120 --> 00:15:53.080 receive only a fraction of the monsoon 00:15:50.120 --> 00:15:54.639 rainfall. Places like Mustang and Dolpo, 00:15:53.080 --> 00:15:56.720 upper valleys tucked behind the 00:15:54.639 --> 00:15:59.319 mountains, receive an almost central 00:15:56.720 --> 00:16:01.879 Asian dryness, receiving less than 200 00:15:59.320 --> 00:16:04.480 mm of rain per year. 00:16:01.879 --> 00:16:07.399 And this dry, arid region is home to one 00:16:04.480 --> 00:16:10.080 of Nepal's most extraordinary places. 00:16:07.399 --> 00:16:12.679 This is Lo Manthang, the walled city of 00:16:10.080 --> 00:16:14.400 Upper Mustang. It sits in a desert at 00:16:12.679 --> 00:16:16.839 3,840 00:16:14.399 --> 00:16:18.840 m. Its mud-brick architecture and 00:16:16.840 --> 00:16:21.120 Tibetan Buddhist culture feel entirely 00:16:18.840 --> 00:16:23.000 different from the rest of Nepal. 00:16:21.120 --> 00:16:25.799 The monsoon also defines Nepal's 00:16:23.000 --> 00:16:28.000 economy. Agriculture, still the primary 00:16:25.799 --> 00:16:30.599 livelihood for the majority of Nepalese, 00:16:28.000 --> 00:16:33.759 depends entirely on monsoon timing and 00:16:30.600 --> 00:16:36.519 intensity. A late monsoon or a weak one 00:16:33.759 --> 00:16:38.439 means poor harvests and food insecurity. 00:16:36.519 --> 00:16:40.600 A particularly violent monsoon could 00:16:38.440 --> 00:16:43.280 mean flooding, landslides, and the loss 00:16:40.600 --> 00:16:45.320 of everything a family has built. Nepal 00:16:43.279 --> 00:16:47.838 sits almost exactly at the point where 00:16:45.320 --> 00:16:49.800 the monsoon hits the Himalayas hardest, 00:16:47.839 --> 00:16:52.080 which means the stakes of every year's 00:16:49.799 --> 00:16:53.719 rains can be enormous. 00:16:52.080 --> 00:16:56.320 Now that we've explored the physical 00:16:53.720 --> 00:16:58.720 geography of Nepal, let's talk about the 00:16:56.320 --> 00:17:00.839 cities of Nepal. What are they like, and 00:16:58.720 --> 00:17:03.080 where are they located? We already spoke 00:17:00.839 --> 00:17:05.400 a little bit about Kathmandu, but what 00:17:03.080 --> 00:17:07.480 other large cities are in Nepal? 00:17:05.400 --> 00:17:10.160 Well, Nepal's second largest city is 00:17:07.480 --> 00:17:12.759 Pokhara. It sits in a broad valley like 00:17:10.160 --> 00:17:14.920 Kathmandu at around 820 m above sea 00:17:12.759 --> 00:17:17.240 level. It's lower and warmer than 00:17:14.920 --> 00:17:20.318 Kathmandu, and its defining feature is 00:17:17.240 --> 00:17:22.160 probably Fewa Lake, a large blue-green 00:17:20.318 --> 00:17:24.000 lake whose southern shore has become the 00:17:22.160 --> 00:17:26.519 spine of Nepal's tourism industry 00:17:24.000 --> 00:17:28.640 outside of the Everest region. To the 00:17:26.519 --> 00:17:32.960 north of Pokhara lies the Annapurna 00:17:28.640 --> 00:17:35.160 Massif, which rises to over 8,000 m. So, 00:17:32.960 --> 00:17:37.160 just imagine on a clear morning standing 00:17:35.160 --> 00:17:39.840 at the lakeside of Fewa Lake, looking to 00:17:37.160 --> 00:17:41.759 your north and you see the massive 00:17:39.839 --> 00:17:43.599 Annapurna. And because of this 00:17:41.759 --> 00:17:45.799 proximity, Pokhara is actually the 00:17:43.599 --> 00:17:48.279 gateway to the Annapurna Circuit and the 00:17:45.799 --> 00:17:50.159 Annapurna Sanctuary, two of the world's 00:17:48.279 --> 00:17:51.879 most celebrated trekking routes. 00:17:50.160 --> 00:17:53.800 Hundreds of thousands of trekkers pass 00:17:51.880 --> 00:17:55.600 through this city each year, either 00:17:53.799 --> 00:17:58.079 setting out into the hills or returning 00:17:55.599 --> 00:18:00.119 from them. But Pokhara is not just a 00:17:58.079 --> 00:18:02.960 gateway for Annapurna. It's an actual 00:18:00.119 --> 00:18:04.639 city with over 600,000 people, and it 00:18:02.960 --> 00:18:07.079 has a different character than the 00:18:04.640 --> 00:18:09.520 larger Kathmandu. Less congested, 00:18:07.079 --> 00:18:11.159 greener, and significantly wetter. 00:18:09.519 --> 00:18:13.440 Pokhara receives more rainfall than 00:18:11.160 --> 00:18:16.000 almost anywhere else in Nepal. And the 00:18:13.440 --> 00:18:18.600 result of this are lush hills, full 00:18:16.000 --> 00:18:20.680 rivers, and dramatic waterfalls. 00:18:18.599 --> 00:18:23.519 Beyond Kathmandu and Pokhara, there are 00:18:20.680 --> 00:18:26.240 other cities, particularly in the Terai 00:18:23.519 --> 00:18:28.839 region near the Indian border. Here lies 00:18:26.240 --> 00:18:30.559 Biratnagar, home to jute mills, sugar 00:18:28.839 --> 00:18:33.279 factories, and a growing manufacturing 00:18:30.559 --> 00:18:35.240 sector. There is also Birgunj, the main 00:18:33.279 --> 00:18:38.000 gateway for goods crossing from India 00:18:35.240 --> 00:18:39.640 into Nepal. Now, this city processes an 00:18:38.000 --> 00:18:42.000 enormous proportion of the country's 00:18:39.640 --> 00:18:44.000 imports and has grown into a substantial 00:18:42.000 --> 00:18:46.720 commercial city entirely on the back of 00:18:44.000 --> 00:18:48.440 its border position. But Nepal's cities 00:18:46.720 --> 00:18:50.720 are not yet dominant in the way the 00:18:48.440 --> 00:18:53.640 cities of India and China or Southeast 00:18:50.720 --> 00:18:56.200 Asia are. But the trajectory is clear. 00:18:53.640 --> 00:18:58.400 Nepal is urbanizing faster than most 00:18:56.200 --> 00:19:00.400 people realize. And the cities being 00:18:58.400 --> 00:19:02.759 built now, how they are planned, and how 00:19:00.400 --> 00:19:04.519 they manage their growth will shape much 00:19:02.759 --> 00:19:06.519 of Nepal's future. 00:19:04.519 --> 00:19:08.920 So, we started this video talking about 00:19:06.519 --> 00:19:11.279 a mountain, or rather, the reduction of 00:19:08.920 --> 00:19:14.880 an entire country to a single iconic 00:19:11.279 --> 00:19:18.119 peak. But, like I said, Nepal cannot be 00:19:14.880 --> 00:19:20.640 defined by just one mountain. It is so 00:19:18.119 --> 00:19:22.879 much more than that. It is a country and 00:19:20.640 --> 00:19:25.840 a land that compresses much of Earth's 00:19:22.880 --> 00:19:27.680 environments into a small region. 00:19:25.839 --> 00:19:30.240 From tropical lowlands to the Earth's 00:19:27.680 --> 00:19:32.120 highest peaks, it tells the story of a 00:19:30.240 --> 00:19:33.920 collision between continents still 00:19:32.119 --> 00:19:35.159 unfolding underneath this beautiful 00:19:33.920 --> 00:19:37.720 country. 00:19:35.160 --> 00:19:39.800 It tells the story of people who learned 00:19:37.720 --> 00:19:42.120 to live in a place that most people 00:19:39.799 --> 00:19:43.879 would not even survive in. 00:19:42.119 --> 00:19:46.479 Its resourceful people terraced 00:19:43.880 --> 00:19:48.800 impossibly steep slopes and built cities 00:19:46.480 --> 00:19:50.720 on ancient lakebeds. Despite being 00:19:48.799 --> 00:19:53.079 landlocked, earthquake-prone, and 00:19:50.720 --> 00:19:55.039 dependent on monsoon rains, the people 00:19:53.079 --> 00:19:58.159 of this country carved out their unique 00:19:55.039 --> 00:20:01.119 culture. So, let's not just limit Nepal 00:19:58.160 --> 00:20:03.000 to Everest or the Himalayas. It is so 00:20:01.119 --> 00:20:05.439 much more than that, and I hope this 00:20:03.000 --> 00:20:06.839 video helped you realize that. 00:20:05.440 --> 00:20:08.400 And as always, if you'd like content 00:20:06.839 --> 00:20:09.679 like this, give this video a like. 00:20:08.400 --> 00:20:11.519 Subscribe to the channel if you haven't 00:20:09.680 --> 00:20:12.840 done so already, and let me know in the 00:20:11.519 --> 00:20:14.799 comments below if you want me to 00:20:12.839 --> 00:20:17.119 continue making videos about different 00:20:14.799 --> 00:20:19.000 countries and their geography. 00:20:17.119 --> 00:20:20.959 And thank you to each and every one of 00:20:19.000 --> 00:20:22.160 you who's followed me over the past year 00:20:20.960 --> 00:20:24.759 and a half. 00:20:22.160 --> 00:20:26.759 I've now passed 100,000 subscribers, and 00:20:24.759 --> 00:20:28.879 when I first started this channel, I had 00:20:26.759 --> 00:20:30.640 no idea that I'd be getting here. 00:20:28.880 --> 00:20:31.400 So, thank you to each and every one of 00:20:30.640 --> 00:20:33.240 you. 00:20:31.400 --> 00:20:35.800 And I'll catch you in the next one. 00:20:33.240 --> 00:20:35.799 Peace.