1 00:00:00,520 --> 00:00:05,599 Most people around the world know the 2 00:00:02,319 --> 00:00:08,359 country of Nepal for one thing, Everest, 3 00:00:05,599 --> 00:00:10,160 the summit of the world. That photograph 4 00:00:08,359 --> 00:00:12,279 on the poster, that bucket list 5 00:00:10,160 --> 00:00:14,359 mountain, and the fact that it's used as 6 00:00:12,279 --> 00:00:17,199 a superlative for anything remotely 7 00:00:14,359 --> 00:00:20,239 challenging. But, despite the grandeur 8 00:00:17,199 --> 00:00:22,679 of this epic mountain, it kind of steals 9 00:00:20,239 --> 00:00:25,279 the spotlight from the rest of Nepal. 10 00:00:22,679 --> 00:00:27,719 Just knowing Nepal for Everest strips it 11 00:00:25,280 --> 00:00:29,280 of almost everything that makes it even 12 00:00:27,719 --> 00:00:31,519 more remarkable. 13 00:00:29,280 --> 00:00:32,480 Because Nepal is so much more than 14 00:00:31,519 --> 00:00:34,320 Everest. 15 00:00:32,479 --> 00:00:36,000 Surprisingly, it's a geographically 16 00:00:34,320 --> 00:00:38,920 diverse country. 17 00:00:36,000 --> 00:00:41,480 In the span of only 200 km, the land 18 00:00:38,920 --> 00:00:43,840 rises from the subtropical lowlands to 19 00:00:41,479 --> 00:00:46,079 the highest point on the planet. 20 00:00:43,840 --> 00:00:49,840 That is an elevation gain of nearly 9 21 00:00:46,079 --> 00:00:52,239 km. In those 200 km, you pass through 22 00:00:49,840 --> 00:00:55,400 several different climate zones, from 23 00:00:52,240 --> 00:00:57,920 alpine tundra to jungles, from monsoon 24 00:00:55,399 --> 00:01:00,159 forest with elephants and rhinos, 25 00:00:57,920 --> 00:01:02,280 through terraced hillsides and cloud 26 00:01:00,159 --> 00:01:04,878 forests, and through high-altitude 27 00:01:02,280 --> 00:01:07,079 grasslands and glacial valleys. 28 00:01:04,879 --> 00:01:09,160 So, let's today talk about the true 29 00:01:07,079 --> 00:01:12,599 geography of Nepal 30 00:01:09,159 --> 00:01:12,599 in all its glory. 31 00:01:50,200 --> 00:01:54,200 So, when we take a look at Nepal on a 32 00:01:52,319 --> 00:01:57,239 map, the first thing you'll notice is 33 00:01:54,200 --> 00:02:00,079 the shape, a long, narrow rectangle. 34 00:01:57,239 --> 00:02:03,839 It's oriented east to west, roughly 900 35 00:02:00,079 --> 00:02:06,159 km long and 200 km wide. To the south is 36 00:02:03,840 --> 00:02:08,319 a long, open border with India. And to 37 00:02:06,159 --> 00:02:09,960 the north is the Tibetan Plateau, the 38 00:02:08,319 --> 00:02:11,840 roof of the world. 39 00:02:09,960 --> 00:02:13,879 What this means is that Nepal is 40 00:02:11,840 --> 00:02:15,719 landlocked, completely surrounded by 41 00:02:13,879 --> 00:02:18,159 just two countries. 42 00:02:15,719 --> 00:02:20,400 For a nation of over 30 million people, 43 00:02:18,159 --> 00:02:21,879 this geographical reality has profound 44 00:02:20,400 --> 00:02:24,319 consequences. 45 00:02:21,879 --> 00:02:26,560 Most trade, most imports, and all access 46 00:02:24,319 --> 00:02:28,879 to the sea must pass through India, or 47 00:02:26,560 --> 00:02:31,840 to a much lesser extent, through the 48 00:02:28,879 --> 00:02:33,519 long and difficult routes into China. 49 00:02:31,840 --> 00:02:35,280 In terms of its size, it covers about 50 00:02:33,520 --> 00:02:36,640 147,000 51 00:02:35,280 --> 00:02:38,120 sq km. 52 00:02:36,639 --> 00:02:40,759 About the same size as neighboring 53 00:02:38,120 --> 00:02:43,240 Bangladesh. By area, it's small, but by 54 00:02:40,759 --> 00:02:46,079 topographic range, it's extraordinary. 55 00:02:43,240 --> 00:02:49,159 Home to eight of the world's 14 peaks 56 00:02:46,080 --> 00:02:53,200 over 8,000 m, including Everest, 57 00:02:49,159 --> 00:02:56,879 Kangchenjunga, Lhotse, Makalu, Cho Oyu, 58 00:02:53,199 --> 00:02:59,959 Dhaulagiri, Manaslu, and Annapurna. All 59 00:02:56,879 --> 00:03:03,159 epic peaks. No other country on Earth 60 00:02:59,959 --> 00:03:06,239 has eight 8,000ers. Those being peaks 61 00:03:03,159 --> 00:03:08,639 over 8,000 m high. But like I mentioned 62 00:03:06,239 --> 00:03:10,759 previously, Nepal is a lot more than the 63 00:03:08,639 --> 00:03:12,719 mountains. The Himalayas that run across 64 00:03:10,759 --> 00:03:15,120 the country are just the northern third 65 00:03:12,719 --> 00:03:17,519 of Nepal. The country is usually divided 66 00:03:15,120 --> 00:03:20,120 into three rough horizontal zones 67 00:03:17,519 --> 00:03:21,800 running east to west. The Terai lowlands 68 00:03:20,120 --> 00:03:24,039 in the south, the foothills of the 69 00:03:21,800 --> 00:03:26,640 Himalayas in the center, and the tall 70 00:03:24,039 --> 00:03:28,919 Himalayas in the north. Each zone is a 71 00:03:26,639 --> 00:03:30,399 different world, different climate, 72 00:03:28,919 --> 00:03:32,559 different ecology, and different 73 00:03:30,400 --> 00:03:35,519 culture. Which means to understand 74 00:03:32,560 --> 00:03:37,080 Nepal, you have to understand all three. 75 00:03:35,519 --> 00:03:38,959 So, let's do that, starting at the 76 00:03:37,080 --> 00:03:40,840 bottom, the Terai. 77 00:03:38,959 --> 00:03:43,239 Now, most people's mental image of Nepal 78 00:03:40,840 --> 00:03:45,039 begins somewhere in the high hills. You 79 00:03:43,239 --> 00:03:47,480 may have seen images of prayer flags 80 00:03:45,039 --> 00:03:50,159 strung between peaks, or monasteries 81 00:03:47,479 --> 00:03:52,359 climbing to clifftops. But the Terai 82 00:03:50,159 --> 00:03:54,879 doesn't fit that image. 83 00:03:52,360 --> 00:03:56,320 It's the flat southern strip of Nepal, a 84 00:03:54,879 --> 00:03:58,319 narrow plain sitting between the 85 00:03:56,319 --> 00:04:00,680 Himalayan foothills to the north and the 86 00:03:58,319 --> 00:04:02,639 Indian border to the south. It is the 87 00:04:00,680 --> 00:04:04,719 northern continuation of the great 88 00:04:02,639 --> 00:04:06,799 Indo-Gangetic Plain, one of the most 89 00:04:04,719 --> 00:04:09,240 fertile and densely populated 90 00:04:06,800 --> 00:04:12,200 agricultural landscapes on Earth. In 91 00:04:09,240 --> 00:04:13,480 Nepal, it is roughly 30 to 50 km wide 92 00:04:12,199 --> 00:04:16,079 and extends the full length of the 93 00:04:13,479 --> 00:04:18,719 country, east to west. Elevations in 94 00:04:16,079 --> 00:04:21,239 this region are low, mostly between 60 95 00:04:18,720 --> 00:04:23,720 and 300 m above sea level. The climate 96 00:04:21,238 --> 00:04:25,918 is subtropical, hot summers but cool 97 00:04:23,720 --> 00:04:27,760 winters, and a monsoon season from June 98 00:04:25,918 --> 00:04:29,279 to September that dumps enormous 99 00:04:27,759 --> 00:04:31,079 quantities of rain. 100 00:04:29,279 --> 00:04:32,879 This region can feel oppressively humid 101 00:04:31,079 --> 00:04:35,240 in summer with temperatures regularly 102 00:04:32,879 --> 00:04:36,959 exceeding 40° C. 103 00:04:35,240 --> 00:04:38,960 But this climate produces extraordinary 104 00:04:36,959 --> 00:04:41,279 biological richness. 105 00:04:38,959 --> 00:04:43,839 This region is home to Chitwan National 106 00:04:41,279 --> 00:04:46,359 Park, one of the finest wildlife areas 107 00:04:43,839 --> 00:04:48,319 in all of Asia. It protects a large 108 00:04:46,360 --> 00:04:50,360 remnant of the subtropical grasslands 109 00:04:48,319 --> 00:04:52,040 and riverine forest that once covered 110 00:04:50,360 --> 00:04:55,040 this entire region. 111 00:04:52,040 --> 00:04:57,120 Here live the one-horned rhinoceros, 112 00:04:55,040 --> 00:04:59,319 a species that came perilously close to 113 00:04:57,120 --> 00:05:01,360 extinction in the 20th century but has 114 00:04:59,319 --> 00:05:03,918 made a remarkable recovery in Nepal's 115 00:05:01,360 --> 00:05:06,879 protected areas. Also here, we find 116 00:05:03,918 --> 00:05:08,918 Bengal tigers and the extremely rare 117 00:05:06,879 --> 00:05:11,319 gharials, one of the strangest-looking 118 00:05:08,918 --> 00:05:13,639 crocodilian species on Earth. 119 00:05:11,319 --> 00:05:15,120 Sloth bears and leopards also call this 120 00:05:13,639 --> 00:05:17,039 area home. 121 00:05:15,120 --> 00:05:18,639 Now, surprisingly, Nepal is one of the 122 00:05:17,040 --> 00:05:20,760 few countries in the world where tiger 123 00:05:18,639 --> 00:05:23,159 populations are actually growing. 124 00:05:20,759 --> 00:05:26,240 A census conducted in 2022 recorded over 125 00:05:23,160 --> 00:05:28,800 350 wild tigers in the country, nearly 126 00:05:26,240 --> 00:05:30,560 double the number of a decade earlier. 127 00:05:28,800 --> 00:05:33,040 It is one of the genuine conservation 128 00:05:30,560 --> 00:05:35,480 success stories of our era. This region 129 00:05:33,040 --> 00:05:37,879 is also Nepal's breadbasket. Despite 130 00:05:35,480 --> 00:05:40,040 covering only about 17% of the country's 131 00:05:37,879 --> 00:05:42,120 land area, it produces roughly half of 132 00:05:40,040 --> 00:05:45,280 Nepal's agricultural output. There's 133 00:05:42,120 --> 00:05:46,840 rice, wheat, sugarcane, and lentils that 134 00:05:45,279 --> 00:05:48,639 grow here in the rich alluvial soil 135 00:05:46,839 --> 00:05:51,319 deposited over millennia by rivers 136 00:05:48,639 --> 00:05:53,159 flowing south of the Himalayas. 137 00:05:51,319 --> 00:05:55,879 This region of Nepal is home to the 138 00:05:53,160 --> 00:05:57,800 Madhesi people. They make up about 30% 139 00:05:55,879 --> 00:05:59,519 of the country's population and are 140 00:05:57,800 --> 00:06:01,720 predominantly Hindu. 141 00:05:59,519 --> 00:06:03,680 Now, the Tarai is where Nepal meets 142 00:06:01,720 --> 00:06:05,680 India. And for the majority of the 143 00:06:03,680 --> 00:06:08,120 population here, this is not really a 144 00:06:05,680 --> 00:06:10,280 border checkpoint, but more of a porous 145 00:06:08,120 --> 00:06:12,720 way of living. Many communities straddle 146 00:06:10,279 --> 00:06:14,559 the border. Families are divided by it. 147 00:06:12,720 --> 00:06:17,440 Languages, customs, and religious 148 00:06:14,560 --> 00:06:19,879 practices flow across it. Now, let's 149 00:06:17,439 --> 00:06:21,959 move north. Between the flat Tarai and 150 00:06:19,879 --> 00:06:24,600 the soaring Himalayas, lies a part of 151 00:06:21,959 --> 00:06:27,439 Nepal where most Nepalese have lived for 152 00:06:24,600 --> 00:06:29,640 most of its history, the middle hills. 153 00:06:27,439 --> 00:06:32,000 This is a zone of complex and folded 154 00:06:29,639 --> 00:06:34,199 terrain. These ridges and valleys 155 00:06:32,000 --> 00:06:35,918 running roughly east to west cut across 156 00:06:34,199 --> 00:06:38,439 by rivers flowing south from the 157 00:06:35,918 --> 00:06:40,319 mountains towards India. Elevations here 158 00:06:38,439 --> 00:06:43,000 typically range from 300 m to about 159 00:06:40,319 --> 00:06:46,079 3,000 m with most settlements clustered 160 00:06:43,000 --> 00:06:48,079 between 1,000 and 2,500 m. High enough 161 00:06:46,079 --> 00:06:50,279 to escape the Tarai's heat, but low 162 00:06:48,079 --> 00:06:51,959 enough to still grow some crops. The 163 00:06:50,279 --> 00:06:53,639 landscape of the middle hills is defined 164 00:06:51,959 --> 00:06:55,719 above almost anything else by one 165 00:06:53,639 --> 00:06:57,680 feature, terraces. 166 00:06:55,720 --> 00:06:59,919 Almost every hillside in the inhabited 167 00:06:57,680 --> 00:07:02,040 middle hills region has been terraced, 168 00:06:59,918 --> 00:07:04,079 cut into horizontal steps to create flat 169 00:07:02,040 --> 00:07:06,480 agricultural land on slopes that would 170 00:07:04,079 --> 00:07:07,959 otherwise be impossible to farm. 171 00:07:06,480 --> 00:07:09,520 Now, this practice of terracing in this 172 00:07:07,959 --> 00:07:12,120 region has been accumulating for over 173 00:07:09,519 --> 00:07:13,680 2,000 years. Generations of farmers 174 00:07:12,120 --> 00:07:15,680 cutting into the hillsides, building 175 00:07:13,680 --> 00:07:17,480 retaining walls of stone, channeling 176 00:07:15,680 --> 00:07:18,560 water from one terrace to the next. The 177 00:07:17,480 --> 00:07:20,360 result is one of the most 178 00:07:18,560 --> 00:07:22,120 interesting-looking agricultural 179 00:07:20,360 --> 00:07:24,199 landscapes on Earth. 180 00:07:22,120 --> 00:07:25,680 Rice is the staple crop here. Where 181 00:07:24,199 --> 00:07:28,399 water can be brought to irrigate the 182 00:07:25,680 --> 00:07:29,879 terraces, paddy rice dominates. On drier 183 00:07:28,399 --> 00:07:32,519 slopes and higher elevations, there's 184 00:07:29,879 --> 00:07:34,000 millet, maize, wheat, and buckwheat. The 185 00:07:32,519 --> 00:07:36,199 agricultural calendar is dictated 186 00:07:34,000 --> 00:07:38,040 entirely by the monsoon here. The 187 00:07:36,199 --> 00:07:39,918 arrival of the rains in June triggers 188 00:07:38,040 --> 00:07:42,439 planting. The end of the monsoon in 189 00:07:39,918 --> 00:07:44,479 September and October brings harvest. 190 00:07:42,439 --> 00:07:46,839 Within the middle hills, one place above 191 00:07:44,480 --> 00:07:49,480 all others has defined Nepali history 192 00:07:46,839 --> 00:07:51,759 and culture, the Kathmandu Valley. 193 00:07:49,480 --> 00:07:54,200 The Kathmandu Valley is a broad, flat 194 00:07:51,759 --> 00:07:56,319 basin sitting at around 1,300 m above 195 00:07:54,199 --> 00:07:58,639 sea level. Roughly oval in shape, 196 00:07:56,319 --> 00:08:00,480 surrounded by hills on all sides, it is, 197 00:07:58,639 --> 00:08:03,719 geologically speaking, a former lake 198 00:08:00,480 --> 00:08:05,840 bed, making it extraordinarily fertile. 199 00:08:03,720 --> 00:08:09,120 The Valley is home to Kathmandu, 200 00:08:05,839 --> 00:08:10,679 Lalitpur, and Bhaktapur, three ancient 201 00:08:09,120 --> 00:08:13,959 cities that were, until the 18th 202 00:08:10,680 --> 00:08:16,400 century, three separate rival kingdoms. 203 00:08:13,959 --> 00:08:19,079 The Kathmandu Valley today contains 204 00:08:16,399 --> 00:08:22,000 seven UNESCO World Heritage Sites, all 205 00:08:19,079 --> 00:08:23,800 within roughly 30 km of each other. 206 00:08:22,000 --> 00:08:25,839 Now, the Valley's position also made it 207 00:08:23,800 --> 00:08:27,680 a trade crossroads, sitting in the 208 00:08:25,839 --> 00:08:29,319 middle hills between the Indian plains 209 00:08:27,680 --> 00:08:31,040 and the Tibetan Plateau. 210 00:08:29,319 --> 00:08:33,038 It was a natural stopping point on the 211 00:08:31,040 --> 00:08:35,158 ancient trade routes carrying salt, 212 00:08:33,038 --> 00:08:37,840 wool, and grain south from Tibet, and 213 00:08:35,158 --> 00:08:39,759 cotton and spices north from India. 214 00:08:37,840 --> 00:08:41,759 Newar merchants controlled this trade 215 00:08:39,759 --> 00:08:44,159 for centuries and grew extraordinarily 216 00:08:41,759 --> 00:08:46,720 wealthy. That wealth built the famous 217 00:08:44,159 --> 00:08:48,399 temples in this region. Today, Kathmandu 218 00:08:46,720 --> 00:08:50,960 is the capital of Nepal and home to 219 00:08:48,399 --> 00:08:52,639 nearly 1.5 million people in the city 220 00:08:50,960 --> 00:08:55,639 proper, and with the greater Valley 221 00:08:52,639 --> 00:08:57,480 approaching 3.5 million. In its chaotic, 222 00:08:55,639 --> 00:08:59,679 traffic-choked, smog-hazed, and 223 00:08:57,480 --> 00:09:02,080 endlessly alive city. 224 00:08:59,679 --> 00:09:05,319 The city core survives alongside what 225 00:09:02,080 --> 00:09:07,360 looks like endless concrete sprawl. But, 226 00:09:05,320 --> 00:09:09,839 the beauty of the city is that on clear 227 00:09:07,360 --> 00:09:12,919 days, if you look to the north, the 228 00:09:09,839 --> 00:09:15,080 Himalayas are right there, towering over 229 00:09:12,919 --> 00:09:17,319 the city of Kathmandu. 230 00:09:15,080 --> 00:09:19,879 An epic reminder that this busy, 231 00:09:17,320 --> 00:09:22,240 complicated city sits at the base of the 232 00:09:19,879 --> 00:09:24,039 tallest mountain system on the planet. 233 00:09:22,240 --> 00:09:26,120 The middle hills are cut through by a 234 00:09:24,039 --> 00:09:29,279 series of major river systems, the 235 00:09:26,120 --> 00:09:30,679 Koshi, the Gandaki, and the Karnali. All 236 00:09:29,279 --> 00:09:32,279 of them drain from the Himalayas 237 00:09:30,679 --> 00:09:34,279 southward through the hills and into the 238 00:09:32,279 --> 00:09:35,199 Terai, and then eventually the Ganges 239 00:09:34,279 --> 00:09:37,199 River. 240 00:09:35,200 --> 00:09:39,400 These rivers are among the most powerful 241 00:09:37,200 --> 00:09:41,200 on Earth in terms of sediment load. They 242 00:09:39,399 --> 00:09:43,799 carry millions of tons of eroded 243 00:09:41,200 --> 00:09:45,800 mountain material downstream every year, 244 00:09:43,799 --> 00:09:47,919 building the great alluvial plains of 245 00:09:45,799 --> 00:09:50,359 northern India. For the people of the 246 00:09:47,919 --> 00:09:53,120 hills, these rivers are both lifelines 247 00:09:50,360 --> 00:09:55,600 and barriers. They provide water, fish, 248 00:09:53,120 --> 00:09:57,519 and in some places hydroelectric power. 249 00:09:55,600 --> 00:09:59,279 But the deep gorges they carve have 250 00:09:57,519 --> 00:10:01,399 historically isolated communities from 251 00:09:59,279 --> 00:10:03,319 each other. A village on one side of the 252 00:10:01,399 --> 00:10:05,159 gorge might only be a kilometer from 253 00:10:03,320 --> 00:10:08,040 village on the other side as the crow 254 00:10:05,159 --> 00:10:10,719 flies, but hours of descent and ascent 255 00:10:08,039 --> 00:10:12,240 on foot. This geographical fragmentation 256 00:10:10,720 --> 00:10:14,720 has produced Nepal's extraordinary 257 00:10:12,240 --> 00:10:17,000 ethnic and linguistic diversity. Over 258 00:10:14,720 --> 00:10:19,800 120 languages are spoken in a country 259 00:10:17,000 --> 00:10:22,080 the size of New York state. And now we 260 00:10:19,799 --> 00:10:23,599 move to the Himalayas. 261 00:10:22,080 --> 00:10:25,520 Now to understand the Himalayas, you 262 00:10:23,600 --> 00:10:27,680 need to look at the geologic history of 263 00:10:25,519 --> 00:10:30,120 this region. And for that, you need to 264 00:10:27,679 --> 00:10:31,399 start about 100 million years ago. That 265 00:10:30,120 --> 00:10:33,600 time, what is now the Indian 266 00:10:31,399 --> 00:10:36,600 subcontinent was not attached to Asia at 267 00:10:33,600 --> 00:10:38,279 all. It was an island, a vast northward 268 00:10:36,600 --> 00:10:40,720 drifting landmass. 269 00:10:38,279 --> 00:10:43,360 Over tens of millions of years, the 270 00:10:40,720 --> 00:10:45,440 Indian subcontinent drifted north. Then, 271 00:10:43,360 --> 00:10:47,519 around 50 million years ago, India 272 00:10:45,440 --> 00:10:49,080 collided with Asia. The seafloor 273 00:10:47,519 --> 00:10:51,559 sediments that had accumulated in it 274 00:10:49,080 --> 00:10:53,240 were compressed and crumpled upwards. 275 00:10:51,559 --> 00:10:55,279 And the collision, which actually is 276 00:10:53,240 --> 00:10:57,720 still ongoing, began building the 277 00:10:55,279 --> 00:10:59,759 Himalayas. The Indian plate is still 278 00:10:57,720 --> 00:11:03,399 pushing north. The Himalayas are still 279 00:10:59,759 --> 00:11:05,439 rising about 5 mm per year. Nepal sits 280 00:11:03,399 --> 00:11:07,079 directly on this collision zone. The 281 00:11:05,440 --> 00:11:09,200 ground beneath Kathmandu is being 282 00:11:07,080 --> 00:11:10,960 compressed, uplifted, and periodically 283 00:11:09,200 --> 00:11:12,839 shattered by earthquakes that release 284 00:11:10,960 --> 00:11:15,360 the accumulated stress of two continents 285 00:11:12,839 --> 00:11:18,080 grinding against each other. And this is 286 00:11:15,360 --> 00:11:20,519 exactly what caused the 2015 Gorkha 287 00:11:18,080 --> 00:11:24,480 earthquake in Nepal. It was magnitude 288 00:11:20,519 --> 00:11:25,838 7.8, and it killed nearly 9,000 people, 289 00:11:24,480 --> 00:11:27,519 destroyed hundreds of thousands of 290 00:11:25,839 --> 00:11:29,600 homes, and triggered avalanches on 291 00:11:27,519 --> 00:11:32,360 Everest that killed climbers at base 292 00:11:29,600 --> 00:11:34,600 camp. It was a reminder, brutal and 293 00:11:32,360 --> 00:11:36,519 sudden, that Nepal does not sit on 294 00:11:34,600 --> 00:11:38,200 stable ground. It sits on one of the 295 00:11:36,519 --> 00:11:39,319 most geologically active zones on the 296 00:11:38,200 --> 00:11:40,920 planet. 297 00:11:39,320 --> 00:11:43,400 And here is something that you might 298 00:11:40,919 --> 00:11:46,399 find interesting. On the summit of Mount 299 00:11:43,399 --> 00:11:48,799 Everest is limestone, marine limestone 300 00:11:46,399 --> 00:11:51,399 full of fossils of tiny sea creatures, 301 00:11:48,799 --> 00:11:53,199 meaning the highest point on Earth 302 00:11:51,399 --> 00:11:56,120 was actually at the bottom of a tropical 303 00:11:53,200 --> 00:11:59,840 sea 450 million years ago. Tectonic 304 00:11:56,120 --> 00:12:02,879 forces lifted it nearly 9 km. But 305 00:11:59,840 --> 00:12:05,480 Everest is just but one mountain. Nepal 306 00:12:02,879 --> 00:12:08,519 is home to eight of the world's 14 peaks 307 00:12:05,480 --> 00:12:10,720 above 8,000 m. Each one is distinct in 308 00:12:08,519 --> 00:12:13,039 its character, in its difficulty, and in 309 00:12:10,720 --> 00:12:15,800 the history of human attempts on it. 310 00:12:13,039 --> 00:12:18,799 There is Annapurna in the west of Nepal. 311 00:12:15,799 --> 00:12:21,079 It was the first 8,000er ever summited 312 00:12:18,799 --> 00:12:23,000 by French climbers Maurice Herzog and 313 00:12:21,080 --> 00:12:25,200 Louis Lachenal. It was the first 314 00:12:23,000 --> 00:12:27,879 mountain above 8,000 m that any human 315 00:12:25,200 --> 00:12:30,400 being had ever stood on. And it remains, 316 00:12:27,879 --> 00:12:33,159 statistically, the most dangerous of all 317 00:12:30,399 --> 00:12:35,919 the 8,000ers. Its death rate is among 318 00:12:33,159 --> 00:12:38,719 the highest of any major Himalayan peak. 319 00:12:35,919 --> 00:12:41,000 Nearby is Dhaulagiri, also in western 320 00:12:38,720 --> 00:12:43,040 Nepal. It rises so dramatically from the 321 00:12:41,000 --> 00:12:44,799 surrounding terrain that early European 322 00:12:43,039 --> 00:12:47,360 surveyors briefly considered it as the 323 00:12:44,799 --> 00:12:50,159 highest mountain in the world. While far 324 00:12:47,360 --> 00:12:52,080 to the east of Nepal sits Kangchenjunga, 325 00:12:50,159 --> 00:12:54,240 the third highest mountain in the world 326 00:12:52,080 --> 00:12:57,240 at 8,586 327 00:12:54,240 --> 00:12:59,839 m. It is worshipped as a sacred deity by 328 00:12:57,240 --> 00:13:01,839 the Sikkimese people. And by tradition, 329 00:12:59,839 --> 00:13:03,920 climbers stop a few meters short of the 330 00:13:01,839 --> 00:13:06,400 actual summit out of respect, a 331 00:13:03,919 --> 00:13:08,279 remarkable act of restraint at the edge 332 00:13:06,399 --> 00:13:09,600 of one of humanity's greatest physical 333 00:13:08,279 --> 00:13:12,480 challenges. 334 00:13:09,600 --> 00:13:14,240 But the Himalayas are not uninhabited. 335 00:13:12,480 --> 00:13:15,759 People have lived in these mountains for 336 00:13:14,240 --> 00:13:17,600 thousands of years, and their 337 00:13:15,759 --> 00:13:19,480 adaptations to extreme altitude are 338 00:13:17,600 --> 00:13:21,680 among the most remarkable in human 339 00:13:19,480 --> 00:13:23,639 biology. These Sherpa people, who 340 00:13:21,679 --> 00:13:26,000 predominantly reside in the Khumbu and 341 00:13:23,639 --> 00:13:28,360 the Solo regions of Nepal, migrated from 342 00:13:26,000 --> 00:13:30,399 eastern Tibet roughly 500 years ago and 343 00:13:28,360 --> 00:13:32,800 settled in the high valleys of Northeast 344 00:13:30,399 --> 00:13:34,919 Nepal. They are famous worldwide for 345 00:13:32,799 --> 00:13:36,879 their role in Himalayan mountaineering, 346 00:13:34,919 --> 00:13:39,399 but their geographical significance goes 347 00:13:36,879 --> 00:13:41,439 far beyond guiding expeditions. They 348 00:13:39,399 --> 00:13:43,799 developed a civilization at elevations 349 00:13:41,440 --> 00:13:45,320 that would debilitate most humans. 350 00:13:43,799 --> 00:13:46,839 Sherpa communities have been in this 351 00:13:45,320 --> 00:13:49,040 environment long enough to develop 352 00:13:46,840 --> 00:13:52,639 genetic adaptations to altitude, 353 00:13:49,039 --> 00:13:54,199 including a variant of the EPAS1 gene 354 00:13:52,639 --> 00:13:55,919 that allows their bodies to use oxygen 355 00:13:54,200 --> 00:13:57,920 more efficiently at low partial 356 00:13:55,919 --> 00:13:59,879 pressures. Above the settlements, the 357 00:13:57,919 --> 00:14:02,159 landscape becomes one of the most severe 358 00:13:59,879 --> 00:14:04,320 on Earth. The high Himalayan valleys and 359 00:14:02,159 --> 00:14:05,199 passes are home to glaciers, thousands 360 00:14:04,320 --> 00:14:07,480 of them, 361 00:14:05,200 --> 00:14:09,759 covering an estimated 5,000 square 362 00:14:07,480 --> 00:14:11,080 kilometers of Nepal. And these glaciers 363 00:14:09,759 --> 00:14:13,039 are the source of the rivers that 364 00:14:11,080 --> 00:14:16,080 sustain hundreds of millions of people 365 00:14:13,039 --> 00:14:18,199 downstream in Nepal, India, Bangladesh, 366 00:14:16,080 --> 00:14:20,160 and Pakistan. The Himalayan glacier 367 00:14:18,200 --> 00:14:23,440 system is sometimes called the third 368 00:14:20,159 --> 00:14:25,519 pole after Antarctica and the Arctic. 369 00:14:23,440 --> 00:14:27,440 Now, let's leave behind the high peaks 370 00:14:25,519 --> 00:14:30,559 of the Himalayas and talk a little bit 371 00:14:27,440 --> 00:14:32,280 about Nepal's climate. And you cannot 372 00:14:30,559 --> 00:14:34,838 talk about Nepal's climate without 373 00:14:32,279 --> 00:14:36,679 mentioning the monsoon. The South Asian 374 00:14:34,839 --> 00:14:38,760 monsoon is one of the most powerful 375 00:14:36,679 --> 00:14:40,439 atmospheric systems on Earth. It is 376 00:14:38,759 --> 00:14:42,480 driven by the differential heating 377 00:14:40,440 --> 00:14:44,960 between the Indian Ocean and the Asian 378 00:14:42,480 --> 00:14:46,680 landmass. In summer, the land heats 379 00:14:44,960 --> 00:14:48,360 faster than the ocean, 380 00:14:46,679 --> 00:14:51,519 causing the air over the Indian 381 00:14:48,360 --> 00:14:53,519 subcontinent to rise. This causes moist 382 00:14:51,519 --> 00:14:55,919 air from the Indian Ocean to take its 383 00:14:53,519 --> 00:14:57,639 place. When the air hits the Himalayas, 384 00:14:55,919 --> 00:15:00,439 the greatest topographic barrier on 385 00:14:57,639 --> 00:15:02,559 Earth, it's forced upward. It cools and 386 00:15:00,440 --> 00:15:04,720 releases its moisture as rainfall, 387 00:15:02,559 --> 00:15:06,639 enormous, torrential, and possibly 388 00:15:04,720 --> 00:15:08,720 months-long rainfall. 389 00:15:06,639 --> 00:15:11,039 The monsoon typically arrives in Nepal 390 00:15:08,720 --> 00:15:13,639 in June and lasts through September. And 391 00:15:11,039 --> 00:15:16,039 in that 4-month window, roughly 80% of 392 00:15:13,639 --> 00:15:17,919 Nepal's annual precipitation falls. 393 00:15:16,039 --> 00:15:20,120 Rivers that were quiet mountain streams 394 00:15:17,919 --> 00:15:22,719 become raging torrents. Terraced 395 00:15:20,120 --> 00:15:26,200 hillsides green up almost overnight. But 396 00:15:22,720 --> 00:15:28,200 the monsoon is not uniform across Nepal. 397 00:15:26,200 --> 00:15:30,960 The middle hills and the Terai region 398 00:15:28,200 --> 00:15:33,720 receive more than 2,000 mm of rain 399 00:15:30,960 --> 00:15:35,879 annually, and over 80% of that is during 400 00:15:33,720 --> 00:15:37,800 the monsoon. However, the complex 401 00:15:35,879 --> 00:15:39,480 topography of the middle hills region 402 00:15:37,799 --> 00:15:41,839 means that there's a lot of local 403 00:15:39,480 --> 00:15:44,200 variation. But the rain shadow effect 404 00:15:41,840 --> 00:15:45,920 behind the Himalayas is dramatic. The 405 00:15:44,200 --> 00:15:48,120 high valleys of northern Nepal, 406 00:15:45,919 --> 00:15:50,120 sheltered by the main Himalayan range, 407 00:15:48,120 --> 00:15:53,080 receive only a fraction of the monsoon 408 00:15:50,120 --> 00:15:54,639 rainfall. Places like Mustang and Dolpo, 409 00:15:53,080 --> 00:15:56,720 upper valleys tucked behind the 410 00:15:54,639 --> 00:15:59,319 mountains, receive an almost central 411 00:15:56,720 --> 00:16:01,879 Asian dryness, receiving less than 200 412 00:15:59,320 --> 00:16:04,480 mm of rain per year. 413 00:16:01,879 --> 00:16:07,399 And this dry, arid region is home to one 414 00:16:04,480 --> 00:16:10,080 of Nepal's most extraordinary places. 415 00:16:07,399 --> 00:16:12,679 This is Lo Manthang, the walled city of 416 00:16:10,080 --> 00:16:14,400 Upper Mustang. It sits in a desert at 417 00:16:12,679 --> 00:16:16,839 3,840 418 00:16:14,399 --> 00:16:18,840 m. Its mud-brick architecture and 419 00:16:16,840 --> 00:16:21,120 Tibetan Buddhist culture feel entirely 420 00:16:18,840 --> 00:16:23,000 different from the rest of Nepal. 421 00:16:21,120 --> 00:16:25,799 The monsoon also defines Nepal's 422 00:16:23,000 --> 00:16:28,000 economy. Agriculture, still the primary 423 00:16:25,799 --> 00:16:30,599 livelihood for the majority of Nepalese, 424 00:16:28,000 --> 00:16:33,759 depends entirely on monsoon timing and 425 00:16:30,600 --> 00:16:36,519 intensity. A late monsoon or a weak one 426 00:16:33,759 --> 00:16:38,439 means poor harvests and food insecurity. 427 00:16:36,519 --> 00:16:40,600 A particularly violent monsoon could 428 00:16:38,440 --> 00:16:43,280 mean flooding, landslides, and the loss 429 00:16:40,600 --> 00:16:45,320 of everything a family has built. Nepal 430 00:16:43,279 --> 00:16:47,838 sits almost exactly at the point where 431 00:16:45,320 --> 00:16:49,800 the monsoon hits the Himalayas hardest, 432 00:16:47,839 --> 00:16:52,080 which means the stakes of every year's 433 00:16:49,799 --> 00:16:53,719 rains can be enormous. 434 00:16:52,080 --> 00:16:56,320 Now that we've explored the physical 435 00:16:53,720 --> 00:16:58,720 geography of Nepal, let's talk about the 436 00:16:56,320 --> 00:17:00,839 cities of Nepal. What are they like, and 437 00:16:58,720 --> 00:17:03,080 where are they located? We already spoke 438 00:17:00,839 --> 00:17:05,400 a little bit about Kathmandu, but what 439 00:17:03,080 --> 00:17:07,480 other large cities are in Nepal? 440 00:17:05,400 --> 00:17:10,160 Well, Nepal's second largest city is 441 00:17:07,480 --> 00:17:12,759 Pokhara. It sits in a broad valley like 442 00:17:10,160 --> 00:17:14,920 Kathmandu at around 820 m above sea 443 00:17:12,759 --> 00:17:17,240 level. It's lower and warmer than 444 00:17:14,920 --> 00:17:20,318 Kathmandu, and its defining feature is 445 00:17:17,240 --> 00:17:22,160 probably Fewa Lake, a large blue-green 446 00:17:20,318 --> 00:17:24,000 lake whose southern shore has become the 447 00:17:22,160 --> 00:17:26,519 spine of Nepal's tourism industry 448 00:17:24,000 --> 00:17:28,640 outside of the Everest region. To the 449 00:17:26,519 --> 00:17:32,960 north of Pokhara lies the Annapurna 450 00:17:28,640 --> 00:17:35,160 Massif, which rises to over 8,000 m. So, 451 00:17:32,960 --> 00:17:37,160 just imagine on a clear morning standing 452 00:17:35,160 --> 00:17:39,840 at the lakeside of Fewa Lake, looking to 453 00:17:37,160 --> 00:17:41,759 your north and you see the massive 454 00:17:39,839 --> 00:17:43,599 Annapurna. And because of this 455 00:17:41,759 --> 00:17:45,799 proximity, Pokhara is actually the 456 00:17:43,599 --> 00:17:48,279 gateway to the Annapurna Circuit and the 457 00:17:45,799 --> 00:17:50,159 Annapurna Sanctuary, two of the world's 458 00:17:48,279 --> 00:17:51,879 most celebrated trekking routes. 459 00:17:50,160 --> 00:17:53,800 Hundreds of thousands of trekkers pass 460 00:17:51,880 --> 00:17:55,600 through this city each year, either 461 00:17:53,799 --> 00:17:58,079 setting out into the hills or returning 462 00:17:55,599 --> 00:18:00,119 from them. But Pokhara is not just a 463 00:17:58,079 --> 00:18:02,960 gateway for Annapurna. It's an actual 464 00:18:00,119 --> 00:18:04,639 city with over 600,000 people, and it 465 00:18:02,960 --> 00:18:07,079 has a different character than the 466 00:18:04,640 --> 00:18:09,520 larger Kathmandu. Less congested, 467 00:18:07,079 --> 00:18:11,159 greener, and significantly wetter. 468 00:18:09,519 --> 00:18:13,440 Pokhara receives more rainfall than 469 00:18:11,160 --> 00:18:16,000 almost anywhere else in Nepal. And the 470 00:18:13,440 --> 00:18:18,600 result of this are lush hills, full 471 00:18:16,000 --> 00:18:20,680 rivers, and dramatic waterfalls. 472 00:18:18,599 --> 00:18:23,519 Beyond Kathmandu and Pokhara, there are 473 00:18:20,680 --> 00:18:26,240 other cities, particularly in the Terai 474 00:18:23,519 --> 00:18:28,839 region near the Indian border. Here lies 475 00:18:26,240 --> 00:18:30,559 Biratnagar, home to jute mills, sugar 476 00:18:28,839 --> 00:18:33,279 factories, and a growing manufacturing 477 00:18:30,559 --> 00:18:35,240 sector. There is also Birgunj, the main 478 00:18:33,279 --> 00:18:38,000 gateway for goods crossing from India 479 00:18:35,240 --> 00:18:39,640 into Nepal. Now, this city processes an 480 00:18:38,000 --> 00:18:42,000 enormous proportion of the country's 481 00:18:39,640 --> 00:18:44,000 imports and has grown into a substantial 482 00:18:42,000 --> 00:18:46,720 commercial city entirely on the back of 483 00:18:44,000 --> 00:18:48,440 its border position. But Nepal's cities 484 00:18:46,720 --> 00:18:50,720 are not yet dominant in the way the 485 00:18:48,440 --> 00:18:53,640 cities of India and China or Southeast 486 00:18:50,720 --> 00:18:56,200 Asia are. But the trajectory is clear. 487 00:18:53,640 --> 00:18:58,400 Nepal is urbanizing faster than most 488 00:18:56,200 --> 00:19:00,400 people realize. And the cities being 489 00:18:58,400 --> 00:19:02,759 built now, how they are planned, and how 490 00:19:00,400 --> 00:19:04,519 they manage their growth will shape much 491 00:19:02,759 --> 00:19:06,519 of Nepal's future. 492 00:19:04,519 --> 00:19:08,920 So, we started this video talking about 493 00:19:06,519 --> 00:19:11,279 a mountain, or rather, the reduction of 494 00:19:08,920 --> 00:19:14,880 an entire country to a single iconic 495 00:19:11,279 --> 00:19:18,119 peak. But, like I said, Nepal cannot be 496 00:19:14,880 --> 00:19:20,640 defined by just one mountain. It is so 497 00:19:18,119 --> 00:19:22,879 much more than that. It is a country and 498 00:19:20,640 --> 00:19:25,840 a land that compresses much of Earth's 499 00:19:22,880 --> 00:19:27,680 environments into a small region. 500 00:19:25,839 --> 00:19:30,240 From tropical lowlands to the Earth's 501 00:19:27,680 --> 00:19:32,120 highest peaks, it tells the story of a 502 00:19:30,240 --> 00:19:33,920 collision between continents still 503 00:19:32,119 --> 00:19:35,159 unfolding underneath this beautiful 504 00:19:33,920 --> 00:19:37,720 country. 505 00:19:35,160 --> 00:19:39,800 It tells the story of people who learned 506 00:19:37,720 --> 00:19:42,120 to live in a place that most people 507 00:19:39,799 --> 00:19:43,879 would not even survive in. 508 00:19:42,119 --> 00:19:46,479 Its resourceful people terraced 509 00:19:43,880 --> 00:19:48,800 impossibly steep slopes and built cities 510 00:19:46,480 --> 00:19:50,720 on ancient lakebeds. Despite being 511 00:19:48,799 --> 00:19:53,079 landlocked, earthquake-prone, and 512 00:19:50,720 --> 00:19:55,039 dependent on monsoon rains, the people 513 00:19:53,079 --> 00:19:58,159 of this country carved out their unique 514 00:19:55,039 --> 00:20:01,119 culture. So, let's not just limit Nepal 515 00:19:58,160 --> 00:20:03,000 to Everest or the Himalayas. It is so 516 00:20:01,119 --> 00:20:05,439 much more than that, and I hope this 517 00:20:03,000 --> 00:20:06,839 video helped you realize that. 518 00:20:05,440 --> 00:20:08,400 And as always, if you'd like content 519 00:20:06,839 --> 00:20:09,679 like this, give this video a like. 520 00:20:08,400 --> 00:20:11,519 Subscribe to the channel if you haven't 521 00:20:09,680 --> 00:20:12,840 done so already, and let me know in the 522 00:20:11,519 --> 00:20:14,799 comments below if you want me to 523 00:20:12,839 --> 00:20:17,119 continue making videos about different 524 00:20:14,799 --> 00:20:19,000 countries and their geography. 525 00:20:17,119 --> 00:20:20,959 And thank you to each and every one of 526 00:20:19,000 --> 00:20:22,160 you who's followed me over the past year 527 00:20:20,960 --> 00:20:24,759 and a half. 528 00:20:22,160 --> 00:20:26,759 I've now passed 100,000 subscribers, and 529 00:20:24,759 --> 00:20:28,879 when I first started this channel, I had 530 00:20:26,759 --> 00:20:30,640 no idea that I'd be getting here. 531 00:20:28,880 --> 00:20:31,400 So, thank you to each and every one of 532 00:20:30,640 --> 00:20:33,240 you. 533 00:20:31,400 --> 00:20:35,800 And I'll catch you in the next one. 534 00:20:33,240 --> 00:20:35,799 Peace.