The Gauls were one of Rome’s oldest and most bitter enemies. They had sacked Rome
and throughout the centuries fought alongside the Republic’s most dangerous adversaries,
including Pyrrhus and Hannibal. By the end of the 2nd century BC Southern Gaul was largely
subdued, however, there was still tension in Northern Gaul, particularly along the Rhine.
These tensions would ultimately climax in the Gallic Wars: the conflict that would shape
the future of Western Europe for centuries to come, giving rise to the Holy Roman Empire
and modern-day France, the conflict that would forever etch the name Gaius Julius Caesar
in the annals of history. Rome had been rocked by almost half a century
of Civil Wars and the Republic was in decline. Both Marius and Sulla had marched on Rome,
highlighting the ineffectiveness of the system for maintaining a large Empire and the fact
that the legionaries were more loyal to their generals than to the state. Following this
chaotic period, three men had established an unofficial alliance to effectively control
the Republic. This was the First Triumvirate consisting of the famous general Pompey the
Great, the richest man in Rome Crassus, and Julius Caesar.
Caesar had been consul the year before, in 59 BC, but his political campaigning had left
him in debt and made him many enemies in Rome; he needed to make money fast and gain enough
military success to keep his political adversaries at bay. When the time came for distributing
provinces for Caesar to govern as proconsul, he was able to use his political allies to
secure Cisalpine Gaul, Illyricum and Transalpine Gaul for an unprecedented 5 years. This put
Caesar in control of four veteran Legions, the VII, VIII, IX and X, all of whom had fought
with Caesar before in Hispania and were loyal to him. They had a total of roughly 22,000
Legionaries plus auxiliaries. Caesar now had the men he needed; all he needed was an excuse
for war. Fortunately for Caesar, a Celtic tribe, the
Helvetii, was planning a migration into Gaul in 58 BC. Their leader, Orgetorix, had formed
a confederation with a number of neighbouring tribes, the Tulingi, Latobrigi, Rauraci and
Boii, and they now numbered 368,000 men, women and children. Orgetorix had even convinced
them all to burn their homes in order to leave no option of failure. However, soon he was
accused of being a tyrant, was forced to commit suicide.
Command passed to Divico. Divico was determined to stick to the plan and began amassing supplies
in order to start pouring into Gaul. To do this they would have to either pass through
the land of the Roman ally Aedui, and the province of Transalpine Gaul, or take the
longer route through the mountain passes in the North.
The Romans had built up a healthy fear of migrating tribes following the Cimbrian War
in 113-101 BC and so Caesar, hearing of this, was only too willing to come to the rescue
of the Aedui. He took the only available legion in the area and force marched them up to Geneva,
destroying the bridge on the Rhone that provided access into Transalpine Gaul.
The Helvetii appealed to Caesar asking for military access through Roman lands and promising
they would not attack. Caesar played for time, pretending to consider this offer for almost
15 days. Using this time, his legion was able to construct a fortified embankment almost
5 metres high stretching 20 miles along the river bank. With the legion manning the embankment
and now in a stronger position, Caesar denied the Helvetii access and refused to allow them
to cross. Some of the Helvetii ignored this and attempted to cross nonetheless in small
boats but were prevented from doing so by the legionaries throwing javelins and shooting
arrows into them. With the southern route thus blocked, the
Helvetii decided to take the longer northern route through the mountains into Gaul. Leaving
his top lieutenant, Labienus, in command, Caesar returned to Italy to levy a further
two legions and to pull the other 3 veteran legions out of their winter quarters in Aquileia,
bringing his total to approximately 33,000 legionaries plus auxiliaries.
Despite Labienus being in a position to easily block the mountain pass, the Helvetii managed
to push into Gallic territories and began ravaging the land. The Gauls pleaded with
Caesar to intervene and chase the Helvetii out and Caesar, yet again, was only too willing
to help, marching his legions into the Gallic territories. The decision of Labienus to not
hold the Helvetii in the mountains was likely an order received from Caesar; the Celts were
now in open terrain, which better suited the Roman legions, and their pillaging of Gaul
gave Caesar an excuse to intervene. Word reached Caesar that the Helvetii were
currently attempting a crossing at the Arar River. They had been crossing in four large
groups using many rafts and boats, but due to the size of the horde and their lack of
organisation, the crossing had already taken them days and one group was still yet to cross.
Caesar took 3 of his legions and swiftly marched to the river.
Quickly forming his legions into battle formation, Caesar fell upon the Celts waiting to cross.
Caught unaware, unprepared, and encumbered by their baggage, the Helvetii did not even
have enough time to form a proper battle line. The fighting was over quickly, with the whole
stranded group being killed or fleeing into the nearby woods whilst the other three groups
could do nothing but watch helplessly from the other side of the river. The main Helvetii
force began to move on and, not wanting to lose the initiative, Caesar quickly built
a bridge across the river and moved all of his six legions across. The crossing that
had taken the Celts 20 days had taken the Romans just 1.
Caesar began tailing the Helvetii, waiting for the right time to strike. There were a
few minor cavalry skirmishes, but nothing decisive. Caesar did once manage to find a
battlefield that was advantageous and even had Labienus in position behind the enemy,
however, due to poor communication from his scouts, Caesar was forced to pull back from
the battlefield. This caused a delay in Caesar’s plan and he was being to run low on rations.
He decided to head to the nearby town of Bibracte to resupply his army before continuing the
pursuit. As he began to march off however, Divico gave chase, harassing the rear of the
Roman army. Caesar sent his cavalry and light infantry
to fight a delaying action in order to buy time to deploy his main force on a nearby
hill. The four veteran legions formed three lines at the front with the two newly levied
Legions, along with the auxiliaries, positioned further up the hill. These men were not tested
in battle and so were not expected to do any of the fighting, instead they were to guard
the baggage and were spread thin across the hill to seemingly increase the size of Caesar’s
army. The Helvetii, numbering somewhere between 60,000-90,000 warriors, had successfully fought
off the Roman cavalry and light infantry, forcing them to retreat. They now formed their
infantry into a tightly packed shield wall and advanced on the Romans.
The front two lines of legionaries opened the battle with a volley of javelins. These
hampered the Helvetii by becoming stuck in their shields, forcing them to drop them and
to break into a looser formation. With the shield wall in disarray, the Roman front lines
charged into melee. The fighting was intense and tough but the Romans’ discipline and
experience gave them the edge. Slowly, they began to get the upper hand, with the Helvetii
being forced back to a nearby mountain. However, as the Romans pressed up the mountain, a portion
of the Helvetii allies composed of Boii and Tulingi, roughly 15,000 warriors, entered
the battle. These men had been acting as a rear-guard, protecting the camp, and now they
fell on the Roman flank, threatening to encircle them.
The Helvetii, bolstered by the arrival of their allies, began pushing back with renewed
vigour. With the two front lines of legionaries already engaging the Helvetii on the mountain,
Caesar committed his final line of veterans, which had been acting as a reserve. After
hours of hard fighting, the Helvetii on the mountain were eventually broken and forced
from the battle. However, the Boii and Tulingi fell back to the camp to make a last stand.
Using their baggage wagons they formed a makeshift rampart and continued the fight, hurling missiles
down into the Roman ranks. This is where the fighting was the most difficult as the Boii
were famed warriors and fought desperately. Finally, after fighting long into the night,
the third line was able to break into the camp, ending the battle.
The battle had lasted almost 12 hours. Caesar had lost perhaps 5,000 men, whilst the Helvetii
had lost around 40,000 to 60,000. Of the 368,000 people who began the migration, only 130,000
were now left. Caesar, with no cavalry left to speak off, was not able to give chase immediately
and gave his men three days in order to recover from the battle before starting the pursuit.
The Helvetii, seeing the Romans chasing them once more, surrendered completely and were
forced to return to their homeland and made a vassal of Rome, acting as a buffer between
Roman and Germanic lands. Caesar had achieved his aim of gaining a swift
military victory and, for now, he would be able to hold off his political enemies in
Rome. Furthermore, the Romans had now shown themselves to be a powerful force in the Gallic
theatre. After his victory, Caesar rested in Bibracte for a short time before moving
on. Rumour had already reached him of a Germanic tribe that had crossed the Rhine and was terrorising
Gaul. The Suebi, led by their king Ariovistus, had
first arrived in Gaul in 63 BC as the mercenaries for Sequani and Arverni in their war against
the Aedui, a Roman ally. The 15,000 warriors that Ariovistus initially proved decisive,
helping to secure a crucial victory over the Aedui at the Battle of Magetobriga, which
forced the Aedui to become a tributary to the Sequani. In response to this, the Aedui
sent an envoy, Diviciacus, to ask Rome for help, but the Republic was still recovering
from the political shock of the Cataline Conspiracy and was distracted by an Allobroges revolt.
The governor of Transalpine Gaul was order to help Rome’s Gallic allies when possible
and in 59 BC the Senate named Ariovistus a Friend of the People of Rome to pacify him
and keep in check. Ariovistus used that time to consolidate his
position. After helping the Sequani, he demanded a third of their lands as a payment. The Sequani
gave in and Ariovistus began moving more of his people across the Rhine to settle in this
new land. By 58 BC, the as many as 120,000 Suebi had now crossed the Rhine and made their
home in Gaul. Furthermore, Ariovistus was demanding more Sequani territory in order
to settle an extra 24,000 Germans and had been taking hostages in order to keep the
Sequani and Aedui obedient. Something had to be done.
Following his victory over the Helvetii, Caesar had taken some time to rest in Bibracte. Whilst
encamped there, he was visited by a council of Gallic leaders and diplomats, led by Diviciacus.
They complimented Caesar on his victory, and implored him to intervene in the situation,
pointing out that if Germans continued his conquests, soon the Suebi would be directly
bordering Roman territory. Caesar, again, was happy to oblige.
As Ariovistus was a “Friend of Rome” however, Caesar could not immediately go to war. Instead,
Caesar’s first invited Ariovistus to meet him, which was declined. He then sent a diplomat
to Ariovistus asking him to return the Gallic hostages he had taken and to stop any hostilities.
Caesar reminded him that if he were to comply, the Romans would still consider a “Friend
of Rome” and not take any action against him. This was a good deal for Ariovistus;
he’d be allowed to keep the lands that he had already taken from the Sequani without
a fight. Instead of accepting the terms, Ariovistus
doubled down and sent a message back to Caesar saying that if the Romans could conquer where
and how they liked, so could he. At the same time, the 24,000 new Germans who had crossed
the Rhine were allowed to raze and pillage the Gallic lands as they pleased, with more
Germans preparing to cross the river to join Ariovistus.
Caesar now had his justification, as he had a legal decree from the Senate to protect
Rome’s Gallic allies, and could justify that the Suebi were threatening Rome’s borders
and Ariovistus had forfeited his status as a “Friend of Rome” by continuing to pillage
the land of Rome’s allies. Yet again, Caesar had the chance to show himself as the saviour
of Gaul. Gathering his six legions, roughly, 30,000 men, Caesar set out on the warpath.
Both Ariovistus and Caesar recognised the importance of Vesontio, the largest town in
the Sequani territories; well-fortified and well supplied it would be crucial to the war
effort. Both forces began marching to the town, however the Romans, marching day and
night, were able to get there first. Caesar rested here briefly while supplying the legions.
But as they rested, rumours began reaching the men of the strength and ferocity of the
Germans. Even some of Caesar’s officers began having their doubts and it almost seemed
as if Caesar would have a mutiny on his hands. Casear was, however, able to restore order
by insisting that he would face Ariovistus with just the his most trusted X Legion, if
none others would follow. This inspired a fanatical loyalty in the X Legion whilst the
others, motivated by shame at being thought of as cowards rallied, and the legions began
to march out to meet the Suebi. Ariovistus, impressed with the speed at which
the Roman’s had been able to move and take Vesontio, sent messages to Caesar asking for
a meeting with only some cavalry allowed as the bodyguards at the place called Vosges,
in modern day Alsace. Caesar agreed, but the meeting did not go
well, with both generals reiterating their positions. Ariovistus even went so far as
to say that if he were to kill Caesar there would be many in Rome that would be grateful,
showing that he knows what the political situation in Rome is. Negotiations broke down after
this and the cavalry on both sides had a minor skirmish before retreating back to their respective
camps. A few days later Ariovistus asked for another
meeting. Caesar, sensing a trap, sent his translators. This was just as well, as Ariovistus
promptly captured the two and even considered burning them alive. With his plan to capture
Caesar having failed, Ariovistus instead moved to battle. His army composed of 6,000 cavalry,
16,000 light infantry and the rest heavier infantry for a total of around 30,000-40,000
men. Taking Caesar by surprise, Ariovistus marched this force quickly behind Caesar’s
position and set up camp, cutting off the Romans from their supply lines.
For five days, Caesar drew out his army in battle formation willing to give battle, but
Ariovistus was content to wait and strangle Caesar’s supply line, only engaging in cavalry
skirmishes. The Suebi cavalry fought in a unique fashion, for every horsemen there was
an infantryman mixed into their formation. These men were lightly armed in order to keep
up with the cavalry and together provided a flexible and difficult force to handle and
the Roman cavalry got the worse of the fighting. Caesar, knowing that he would have to do something
to break the stalemate or else risk being starved out, formed his legions into three
lines. He marched this force past the Suebi position and ordered the third line to begin
construction of a second camp whilst the first two lines formed up to defend them. Ariovistus
sent all of his light infantry and cavalry to harass the legionaries but seemed reluctant
to commit his entire force and so they were easily held off by the Romans. With the second
camp complete, Caesar left two Legions and part of his auxiliaries to defend it, whilst
his other four legions returned to the main camp.
Realising that Caesar would now be able to use this second camp to reconnect with this
supply line, Ariovistus sent part of his army to attack this second camp. The fighting was
tough, lasting from midday into the evening but, eventually, the Romans were able to repel
the attack, and even took some prisoners. Upon questioning these Suebi, Caesar learnt
that Ariovistus had apparently been told by his priests not to commit his army until after
the new moon, which was why he had not used his whole army to prevent the legions constructing
their second camp. Having learnt this Caesar decided to go on
the offensive. Leaving a small garrison in each camp, Caesar formed his 6 legions into
a triple axis formation with his cavalry in reserve and marched on the Suebi camp. The
Germans came out to meet him, forming their wagons and baggage train in a semi-circle
behind them, their women standing on them urging the men on. Noticing that the German
left flank was slightly weaker, Caesar positioned himself opposite on the Roman right and gave
the order for his men to charge. But as he did, the Suebi also charged. Their assault
was so fast and surprising that the Romans had to drop their pila before they could even
throw them, drawing their swords and fighting in hand to hand combat. The Germans managed
to form a shield wall and neither side seemed able to gain an upper hand. Having been unable
to throw their javelins before charging, the Romans struggled to break the shield wall
as easily as they had at the Battle of Bibracte and took drastic measures attempting to wrench
away the German shields with their hands and even throwing themselves against the wall
to try and break it. After some hard fighting, the Roman right, led by Caesar, started to
push back the German left. However, the Suebi on the right outnumbered their Roman opposition
and were started to get the upper hand. The Roman cavalry, led by the son of the Triumvir
Marcus Licinius Crassus - Publius, had not yet engaged in the battle and from his position
he could see the Roman left starting to crumble. Using his own initiative, Crassus led the
third line which had been kept in reserve, to support the flank, arriving just in time
to avoid a disaster. With their left flank broken and their right now under severe pressure,
the Suebi army broke and ran. It is not known how many people died in this battle, but the
Germans, attempting to retreat through their wagons, were said to have been packed so tightly
that the dead could not even fall over. The entire Suebi force, including Ariovistus,
fled back across the Rhine, pursued by the Roman cavalry. Caesar had won two important
campaigns in one season. For now, he left Labienus to winter with the legions in the
Sequani territory whilst he attended to his governing duties in Cisalpine Gaul. But by
wintering his Legions in Gallic territory, Caesar was making a point: this was beginning
to look less like intervention and more like occupation. With the Germanic threat dealt
with Caesar would be able to turn his attention to Gaul proper.
The Belgae were a loose collection of various tribes and had fought constant wars with the
Germanic tribes across the Rhine which had fostered a strong and experienced warrior
culture. They knew of how successful Caesar had been in Gaul already and were justifiably
suspicious of his intentions. To counter the rising Roman threat, the Belgae formed a confederation
led by the king Galba of the Suessiones. Labienus sent word of this coalition to Caesar
in Cisalpine Gaul, who immediately took action. Caesar raised a further two legions and moved
straight to the Belgae border. It is worth noting that Caesar now had eight legions under
his command, approximately 44,000 men including auxiliaries, double the amount he had initially
been allocated by the Senate. Furthermore, while the Belgae raising an army could certainly
be seen as a potential threat, Caesar made no efforts to get the Cassus Bellis he had
when fighting the Helvetii and Suebi. The Republic had less and less control over Caesar,
and many in Rome were beginning to talk about these conquests not being in Rome’s best
interest, but in Caesar’s. Nevertheless, Caesar marched his legions quickly
into the territory of the nearest Belgic tribe, the Remi, who were completely taken aback
by the speed at which the Romans had been able to mobilize and surrendered instantly,
swearing to Caesar that they had never been a part of the Confederation. The Remi even
provided Caesar with all the information they had on the alliance, including which tribes
were involved, how many men each tribe was contributing and that they were currently
marching towards the Remi’s territory. With this information, Caesar convinced his
Gallic allies, the Aedui, led now by Divitiacus, to invade the lands of the Bellovaci, a powerful
Belgae tribe, to open a second front while he marched towards the Belgic alliance’s
main army. Caesar crossed a bridge over the Axona River and encamped in a strong position
on a hill on the other side. The river provided protection from the rear, and marshy land
at his front made a frontal assault difficult. Furthermore, Caesar had learned his lesson
from fighting Ariovistus and left six cohorts in a well-fortified position on the other
side of the bridge, securing his supply line. With no chance of being starved out from his
position, Caesar waited for the Belgae to make their move.
Meanwhile, the Belgae had marched to the Remi town of Bibrax, just eight miles from where
Caesar was camped, and besieged it. Caesar gives the total number of the Confederation
as 300,000. However, it is unclear how much this number is exaggerated and how many of
these men were currently in the army. A more realistic estimation would be somewhere around
80,000 men - still a force to be reckoned with, almost double that of Caesars. In the
face of such a large force, the Remi sent messages to Caesar saying that they would
be unable to hold the town without his help. Caesar, however, was reluctant to give up
his defensive position, as he thought that that the attack on Bibrax was a trap designed
to force him to do that. Instead he kept his legions in camp, but sent a substantial contingent
of auxiliaries, composed mainly of Cretan archers and Balearic slingers, to sneak into
Bibrax to help the Remi. With Bibrax thus reinforced and Caesar not taking the bait,
Galba instead marched his army to meet the Romans, encamping just two miles from the
Roman camp. Caesar was reluctant to engage Galba straight
away and instead focused on cavalry skirmishes to test the strength of the Belgae. While
this was going on, he further reinforced his position, digging long trenches and constructing
defensive towers on the flanks of his position. Realizing that attacking such a strong position
would be suicidal, Galba instead sent roughly 15,000-20,000 men to ford the river and attack
the six cohorts on the other side, hoping either to draw Caesar from the hill or to
cut off his supply line and starve him out. Seeing this, Caesar gathered all his light
infantry and cavalry and marched quickly to oppose the crossing, leaving his legions in
their defensive position. The Roman cavalry arrived just in time and fell upon the few
Belgae who had made it to the other bank, killing many and forcing them back into the
river. At the same time, the Roman missile troops peppered the Belgae still in the water
with stones, javelins, and arrows. They doggedly tried to continue their crossing despite taking
heavy casualties, but Galba had no choice but to pull his men back.
To make matters worse, word had now reached him that the Aedui were rampaging through
the Bellovaci lands. With the Romans to his front so heavily dug in and with another army
now threatening his flank, Galba decided to withdraw. The tribes would all disperse to
their respective homelands, but all agreed to reassemble if the Romans marched further
into Belgae lands. As the Confederation’s army dispersed, Caesar
cautiously pursued with his cavalry and three legions under Labienus, harassing the Belgae.
Due to their lack of coordination, the Belgae suffered heavy casualties in this retreat.
The battle had cost the Confederation approximately 10,000 men and had forced the tribes to divide,
making them easier for Caesar to conquer. Many tribes simply surrendered in the face
of the Roman Legions, including the Bellovaci and Galba’s Suessiones.
However deeper in Belgae territory, the Nervii did have time to organize and were not going
to give up so easily. They were outraged by Caesar’s foray into Belgae territory and
alongside their neighbours the Viromandui, Atrebates, and Aduatuci, were able to gather
an army of approximately 50,000 men, led by the Nervii king Bodougnatus. Caesar, hearing
that this force was gathering against him, marched for the River Sabis on the edge of
Nervi territory. Bodougnatus had learned the lesson from Galba
and knew that he could not allow the Romans the chance to fortify their position and so
he positioned his men in ambush on a hill on the other side of the river. He also had
his troops construct hedge-like obstructions, which were placed on the other side of the
river to disrupt the Roman formations and cavalry.
Caesar marched his army in two groups; his veteran six Legions who marched in the front
were the first to reach the river and began constructing a camp on a hill with the river
in front, while the two newer legions marched behind with the baggage train. Caesar sent
his cavalry and light infantry across the river, which was only 3 feet deep, in order
to scout the opposite bank. They were met by some Nervii cavalry, and a brief skirmish
broke out. However, the Belgae cavalry fell back drawing in the Romans until the entire
Nervii force broke cover and fell upon them. The Roman cavalry and light infantry broke
and ran back across the river to the Roman camp, the Nervii army in hot pursuit. Thus
started the battle of the Sabis river. The Belgae moved from the woods and across
the river so fast that the legions had almost no time to prepare. However, their experience
and discipline kicked in; rallying to the nearest cohort and legionary standards, they
were able to put together a coherent battle line. But as the legionary engineers did not
have time to clear the campsite as they usually would, the legions were divided by the hedge-like
obstructions laid down by Bodougnatus, which prevented them from forming a cohesive formation.
As a result, the legions were almost fighting 3 separate battles: the 10th and the 9th on
the left against the Atrebati, the 11th and 8th in the centre against the Viromandui and
the 12th and 7th on the right against the largest group, the Nervi with the two remaining
legions, the 13th and 14th still with the baggage train, yet to join the battle.
The fighting was brutal, with Caesar himself going from group to group, encouraging his
men. Eventually, the Roman left was able to push their enemy back enough to hurl their
javelins into their ranks and charge. They were able to force the Atrebati back across
the river, even making it into the Belgae camp. The Roman center was also finding success,
pushing the Viromandui down to the banks of the river.
However, the Roman right was having a hard time. With the center pushing forward, the
Nervii poured into the gap, almost surrounding the 12th and 7th legions and falling upon
on the auxiliaries who had retreated to the camp. The remaining auxiliaries, including
most of the Roman cavalry who had been marching in front of the baggage train, saw this and
fled, assuming the Roman right had been completely destroyed and the battle lost.
They were not without reason: the 12th had lost their standard, their chief centurion,
most of the other centurions and the Romans were beginning to break. Seeing this disaster,
Caesar knew he would have to do something or risk losing the whole campaign. Snatching
up a shield, he pushed himself to the front line of the legion, bolstering the morale
of the men. With the 7th legion under heavy pressure as well, Caesar ordered them to form
a defensive square with the 12th and hold their ground.
At this point, the battle began to swing in the Romans’ favour. Labienus, in charge
of the 10th and 9th Legions, saw what was happening from the other side of the river
and sent the 10th to relieve the Roman right, while the remaining two Legions had finally
joined the battle and were attacking the Nervii in the Roman camp. The Roman auxiliary cavalry
also returned to the battle seeing this change in fortune, and it was now the Nervii who
faced disaster. The Viromandui had fled upon seeing the Roman reinforcements, and the Nervii
were now surrounded. They fought bravely, and Caesar even commended them later, but
their defeat was now inevitable. The Belgae casualties were devastating, Caesar
saying that just 500 survived the battle. The Roman losses had also been high, with
perhaps as many as 5,000 Romans dead. Without Caesar’s personal leadership and the timely
interventions of the legions, it is likely that the battle would have been lost, Caesar
killed, and the campaign ended. But the battle was over, and Caesar was once again victorious.
The Nervii surrendered, becoming a vassal of Rome, and the Atrebati were conquered soon
after. Rome was now in control of most of Gaul.
By 56 BC Caesar had subjugated the majority of Gaul either through conquest or political
alliances and was beginning to look for new opportunities to expand Rome’s influence.
But not all the Gallic tribes were taking kindly to Roman rule; one such tribe was the
Veneti, located in modern Brittany. Despite signing a peace treaty with Caesar, the year
before, they reneged on this promise and captured a few Roman officers. As a largely sea faring
nation, the Veneti were confident that they would be able to put their faith in their
navy and force Caesar to make concessions. However, Caesar spent no time trying to negotiate,
instead seeing the act as a direct declaration of war and marched on the tribe. Initially,
he found little success; due to their large navy the Veneti were able to effectively hop
from town to town, moving entire populaces and their belongings, denying the Romans a
pitched battle or siege. Standard Roman tactics proved ineffective therefore and it was clear
that, in order to win, Caesar had to defeat the navy. With no navy on hand he ordered
that a fleet be built in order to take on the Veneti navy. But compared to the Roman
ships, which were designed for the Mediterranean, the Veneti ships, designed for the Atlantic,
were much stronger and taller and the Romans found them impossible to ram or board. It
was only through the ingenuity of one of his legates, Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, who
suggested that they us billhooks to cut down the sails and cripple the Veneti boats that
Caesar was able to defeat their navy. With this issue sorted, it now seemed that Caesar
would be able to move on to new conquests. Once again though, his plans were put on hold
in 55 BC when yet another roaming German horde, composing of Usipetes and Tenchtheri, began
threatening the Rhine border. These tribes previously rivalled the Suebi, but were now
fleeing in huge numbers, Caesar giving their total number, including civilians, as 430,000.
They had already slaughtered the Menapii and stolen their ships in order to cross the river,
and were now pouring into Gaul. Upon hearing about this, Caesar was once again compelled
to act, as he was worried that Gauls might join the Germans in an attempt to oust the
Romans. Some Gallic tribes in the Rhine valley had indeed sent emissaries to the Germans,
providing them with food and intelligence, encouraging them to move deeper into Gaul.
Caesar gathered a council of Gallic chiefs and convinced them to provide more cavalry
for him to confront the Germans. This served two purposes, firstly, Rome’s cavalry had
always been lacking and the Gauls were renowned horsemen and so filled a crucial role in the
army, and secondly, because cavalry was composed largely of nobles or wealthy persons, they
would act as hostages ensuring good behaviour. He then gathered 5 of his legions and headed
to the Rhine. The Germans had sent a large portion of their
cavalry ahead of their main force in order to carry out raiding missions, but hearing
that Caesar was getting close, they sent emissaries in order to delay him. They asked Caesar to
negotiate, claiming that they were only in Gaul because they had been forced to flee
from the Suebi and promised to ally with Rome if Caesar could provide them with land in
Gaul. However, Caesar suspected that the Germans were delaying and continued his advance.
The envoys continued back and forth as Caesar continued to progress toward the German camp,
sending forward his 5000 cavalries as an advanced force but with orders not to provoke them
into attack. However, upon seeing the Roman cavalry separated from the main force, the
German’s fell upon them. The Romans initially tried to hold their ground but were eventually
overwhelmed and retreated to the safety of Caesar’s camp. Caesar likely underplays
the amount of casualties taken, giving the number as 74, but he does mention that two
brothers of the famous and influential Piso family had died in the fighting, something
that Caesar could not let go unpunished. Refusing to hold back any longer, Caesar gathered
his force to attack the Germans. But before he moved off the Germans sent a party of diplomats,
including high ranking nobility, to treat with Caesar, once again asking for peace and
apologising for the attack. As the Germans had already attacked apparently without provocation,
Caesar refused and took the delegates as prisoners. He then drew up his army in three lines and
moved swiftly to the German camp. The Germans, assuming that Caesar still would have been
delayed by their envoys, were caught completely unaware. The legions fell upon their camp.
Caesar brushes over the details, but it seems to have been somewhat of a massacre. The fleeing
Germans were pursued by the Roman cavalry. Some made it across the river in their boats,
but many tried to swim across and drowned. Hearing of the defeat, the German cavalry
which had been pillaging returned across the Rhine. Caesar’s army had taken minimal casualties.
It is important to note that while Caesar portrayed this as a great victory against
a marauding Germanic horde, this is not how others saw it. To Caesar’s political rivals
in Rome, Caesar had broken the armistice with the Germans by antagonising them with his
cavalry, imprisoned diplomats, which was effectively a declaration of war, and then carried out
a massacre including civilians. Caesar needed something to distract the senate
and win the minds of the people, so he decided to boost his popularity by doing what no Roman
general had ever done before; crossing the Rhine. The Germanic tribe Ubii offered its
ships hoping that the Romans would assist in their war against the Suebi. Caesar, however,
deemed this unworthy of the Roman people and instead decided to build a bridge across the
Rhine between modern Andernach and Neuwied. It was an engineering marvel; the legion’s
engineers used winches to act as pile drivers, driving stakes deep into the river and constructed
the 140 to 400 m by 7 to 9 m in just 10 days. Caesar found the lands beyond the Rhine almost
deserted. Taken aback by the Roman speed and the feat of engineering, the Germanic tribes
in the area had retreated deep into the Germanic forests where they had amassed a significant
army. However, Caesar had no desire to be caught in a prolonged campaign in foreign
territory against a notoriously dangerous enemy. He spent just 18 days on the German
side of the Rhine, burning villages and crop fields, before returning and dismantling the
bridge. The campaign was a proof, not only to the
Germans but also to Caesar’s rivals in Rome, that he could overcome anything and do as
he pleased. Caesar next ambition – Britain, was once
again a perfect propaganda target. The island was on the edge of the known world and rumoured
to be a land of monsters and vast riches. It had remained effectively untouched and
bringing it into Rome’s sphere of influence would be a significant achievement. According
to Caesar, the Britons had provided some of the Gallic tribes with the resources needed
to make war. While this was a weak casus belli, Caesar was, by now, effectively doing what
he wanted with little oversight. He began gathering intel from the Gallic merchants
and sent a small reconnaissance force to the island whilst he mustered the ships he used
against the Veneti and prepared to cross with the VII and X legions.
He set sail from modern Calais and safely made it across with the most of his army,
but his cavalry had been delayed by bad weather. The Romans saw the Britons had amassed along
the White Cliffs of Dover in huge numbers, infantry, cavalry and chariots with every
warrior painted in fierce blue war paint. Caesar moved further down the coast in order
to find a better place to land but was shadowed by the Briton cavalry and chariots who were
easily able to keep pace with the fleet. When the Romans finally found a suitable beach,
Caesar arranged his transport vessels into a long line with his warships on his flanks
and ordered his men to disembark. As the transport vessels had deep keels however, they were
still some way from the shore and the Legions were forced to wade in waist deep water to
try and reach the beach. The Briton saw their opportunity and attacked, firing missiles
into the ranks of the legionnaires as they struggled through the water, weighed down
by their armour. The Briton cavalry charged in and out of the Romans, the height advantage
of being on horseback allowing them to fight much more effectively than the Romans stuck
in the water. The legionaries were taking significant casualties and seeing this, Caesar
moved his shallower keeled warships up the flanks so that his missile troops and ballistae
could fire into the Britons sides. Still, the legions were wavering with some
men not even being willing to get off their transports. It was not until an eagle bearer
of the X Legion leaped into the water and waded towards the Britons that the Legions
rallied and re-joined the battle with earnest. The fighting was fierce and contested, Romans
gathering to their nearest standards to try and maintain some form of cohesion while Caesar
used rowing boats to ferry men from the transports to areas where the Roman front line looked
in danger. Finally, the Romans were able to push through the shallows onto the beach where
their organisation and heavy armour could come into play, at which point the Britons
broke off and retreated. Caesar, without any cavalry, had no choice but to let them escape.
We don’t know the numbers of dead on either side, but being a contested landing, it’s
likely that the Roman losses were greater. Following the battle, the Romans established
a camp on the beach and the Britons sent delegates to sue for peace, probably to assess the Roman
purpose in the area. They were on home ground and could afford to wait to see what Caesar’s
next move would be, whereas Caesar, with no supply line, would be pressured to make the
first move. Caesar accepted the peace and the Britons sent a small number of hostages,
promising more later. The cavalry that had been waylaid did try
and cross once again to meet Caesar but were caught in a storm and forced to turn back.
This same storm damaged the ships that Caesar had anchored off the beach, demoralising the
Romans who could no longer escape the island. Salvaging what materials, he could from the
most damaged ships, Caesar began repairs whilst sending one legion at a time to forage for
food whilst the others defended the camp on the beach. However, whilst one of the Legions
was out foraging, the camp watch reported seeing a dust on the horizon moving their
way. This, combined with the lack of the promised extra hostages, was enough to alert Caesar
to what was happening. He gathered two cohorts and marched quickly to the Legions location.
Whilst foraging, the Legion had been ambushed. Scattered and focused on collecting food,
the Britons had been able to kill a substantial number in the initial attack. The Legion had
managed to regain some level of discipline snatching up their weapons but they were surrounded
by the British cavalry and chariots. British charioteers were trained to throw missiles
from their chariots and then dismount to fight on foot before hopping back on the chariot
when the fighting got too hard in order to regroup. This gave them the staying power
of infantry and mobility of cavalry, a tactic Caesar admired, but was now taking a heavy
toll on the surrounded Legion. Upon Caesar’s arrival with his cohorts in formation, the
cavalry and chariots retreated; the Britons had no desire to fight heavy infantry in formation
in a pitched battle without their own infantry support and allowed the Legion to withdraw
to camp with Caesar. However, bolstered by this success, the Britons
amassed their full force of infantry, cavalry and chariots and marched on the camp. Caesar
drew out his Legions to meet them. So far, he had been fighting in difficult circumstances,
in water, in ambushes, against a highly mobile enemy, but this was an ideal situation for
the Romans were their formations and discipline could truly make a difference.
The Britons charged, but in these conditions, the Romans had the significant advantage.
Whilst the chariots and cavalry had proved highly effective against small groups of Roman
infantry, with the Legions in a cohesive lines they now had little effect. The Britons quickly
caught onto this fact and disengaged, their chariots and cavalry leaving the battlefield.
The Roman infantry was now able to surge forward and catch a portion of the Briton infantry
and routing it completely. The Britons were excellent at hit and run tactics and ambushes,
but in set piece battles, the Romans were far superior.
Once again, the Britons sent a peace delegation and Caesar, knowing that his options were
limited and that he did not have enough resources to carry out a full campaign, accepted and
then hastily withdrew from the island during the night.
However, on his way back to Gaul, 2 ships were blown off course in a storm. 300 Romans
were stranded and surrounded by a Belgae tribe, the Morini, who Caesar had only recently subjugated
and were keen for spoils and revenge. The Romans were assailed them from all sides with
missiles, hitting and running at the small group. Caesar caught wind of this and gathered
as much cavalry as he could to personally lead them to the men’s rescue managing to
ride down the Gauls and save the Romans with only minimal casualties.
Laebinus would later be sent into the Belgae territory to winter in their territory and
reinforce Roman rule in the area. Neither the invasion of Britain nor this foray
into Belgae territory were significant military achievements, however, they show why Caesar
was so loved by his men. He was brave, achieving things no Roman had ever done before, he was
calm under pressure, and, most importantly, he would lead from the front and showed that
he cared for his soldiers and was prepared to risk his life to save them.
The Briton campaign had not achieved much for the Romans, but it did provide Caesar
with crucial knowledge about the Britons military, the climate, and the level of preparation
that he would need to succeed, lessons he would learn from for next year. Moreover,
the Roman public and senate were amazed by his feat of crossing the Channel into unknown
territories and a full 20 days of thanksgiving were declared to recognise his achievement.
After dealing with some administrative matters in 54 BC, Caesar began planning a second campaign
in Britain. Almost 600 hundred transports and 28 warships were built, implementing Veneti
shipbuilding techniques better suited to the rough seas. Caesar called on his Gallic allies
and vassals and amassed 4000 cavalry, including tribal leaders, once again bolstering his
army and minimising the risk of revolts in Gaul. He left half of this cavalry and 3 legions
in Gaul, and crossed with 5 legions and 2000 cavalry - more than double his previous numbers.
This was going to be a full invasion. Caesar landed at the same place as before,
but this time he was unopposed. He quickly established a camp in the area and sent out
scouts, who promptly brought back some local prisoners. They informed Caesar that a large
army had actually gathered to oppose the landing but had retreated upon seeing the size of
Caesar’s force. Leaving a legion at the camp, he immediately set out in search of
the Briton army. The Romans marched through the night and were
able to catch up to the Britons in a hillfort on the other side of a river. Although the
Romans were tired, Caesar was determined to confront them, and began crossing. The Britons’
cavalry and chariots rushed down from the high ground to harass the Romans as they crossed.
Caesar’s allied Gallic cavalry were experienced in fighting in such scenarios, and proved
their value, chasing off the Britons, who quickly retreated to the woods surrounding
the fort. As the Legions began their advance up the
hill, they were harassed from the woods by the Britons, preventing them from making significant
progress until the 12th Legion formed a testudo and were able to make a rudimentary rampart
in order to move over the walls. The Romans were now inside the fortifications, but the
Britons were quick to escape the fort and retreated deeper into the woods. Considering
the men had carried out a night march and battle, and that he did not know the terrain
and whether any more Britons would be waiting for him, Caesar made camp for the night.
The next day word reached him that a storm in the night had, again, damaged his ships.
Without the ships, Caesar would be at the mercy of the Britons, so he decided to prioritise
overseeing their repairs. He commanded his army to reassemble and march back to the beach.
Upon arriving, he discovered that 40 ships were beyond repair, but the rest were salvageable.
Caesar ordered that the ships be brought onto the beach and a large wall was constructed
encompassing the camp and the ships. He also sent word to Labienus to build more ships
in Gaul. He then set off once again to find the Britons.
They were in the same hill fort, but it was a larger force than before, under the command
of Cassivellaunus, a tribal leader beyond the Thames, who was appointed the leader of
a united coalition against the Romans. Caesar had marched past this fort, possibly
not wanting to attack such a large and fortified army, instead attacking exposed villages to
try and draw Cassivellaunus out. At the same time, his troops were constantly harassed
by the Britons’ cavalry and chariots fighting skirmishes with the Roman cavalry on the flanks,
luring them into the forests before turning back to inflict significant casualties.
The Britons seemingly allowed the Roman advanced party time to begin making a fort for the
night. However, as construction began the Britons attacked again. The Romans who were
on guard were able to form a line to defend the site, but the fighting was brutal, with
the Briton chariots darting in and out of the Roman formation. Caesar was forced to
send a further 2 cohorts from the vanguard to quickly reinforce this line.
The Romans were not used to the Briton style of fighting, particularly chariot hit and
run tactics drawing out the Roman infantry from formation who were too slow to catch
them. At one point, the Britons were able to draw out a maniple far enough to create
a gap which they were able to exploit, punching through the Roman line and inflicting many
casualties. It was not until the rest of the Roman army caught up that the Britons disengaged
and retreated. Cassivellaunus was proving himself a cunning enemy.
Caesar marched to the Thames, towards Cassivellaunus’ own territories, in an attempt to draw them
out. Though he was able to find a position on the river where could cross, the Legions
were once again harassed by Britons amassed on the other bank, who quickly retreated once
the Romans were on dry land. Cassivellaunus then made the decision to dismiss
the vast majority of his army except for 4000 chariots, likely realising that fighting a
pitched battle against the Roman heavy infantry would be futile. A smaller force would serve
him much better in a guerrilla war; it would be easier to hide, faster to move, and need
fewer supplies to maintain. Given the fact that he knew the terrain and Caesar did not,
this was a smart and calculated move. However, Cassivellaunus’ previous wars with
other Britons had made him many enemies, and his new guerrilla tactics were not popular
with the Trinobantes, whose leader Cassivellaunus had previously killed. They sent envoys to
Caesar, surrendering and promising hostages. The Trinobantes were second in power only
to Cassivellaunus himself and without their support, numerous tribes followed suit, surrendering
to Caesar. They also provided crucial intel to Caesar, including the location of Cassivellaunus’
capital. Caesar marched there, another hillfort, burning
all villages and fields on the way, and besieged it from both sides, once again hoping to draw
the Briton leader into a direct confrontation. Cassivellaunus, however, did not take the
bait. Although his guerrilla tactics were effective, they were taking a toll on the
Britons and the defenders within in the capital quickly fled.
Cassievalanus realised he needed to gain a victory. Not wanting to fight Caesar directly
though, he instead sent envoys to four allied kings in Kent, who launched an attack on the
Roman camp on the beach in order to try and draw Caesar away from Cassivellaunus’ land.
However, the Roman fortifications were strong, and the force Caesar had left on the beach
was easily able to repel the attack. Cassievalanus was forced to sue for peace.
Caesar readily accepted in exchange for hostages and tribute. Winter was closing in, and he
had no desire to spend it in unknown, hostile lands. The Romans returned to the beach and
sailed back to Gaul. Overall, it is hard to see the invasion as
an immense military victory. Cassivellaunus had not been decisively defeated in battle
nor captured, and the Romans maintained no presence in Britain. From the Britons’ stand
point it was a strategic victory, having successfully pushed the Romans out of their lands.
Still, his campaigns in Britain had taken 2 years, and without Caesars presence, Gaul
was beginning to stir. In 54 BC a Gallic tribe, the Eburones, under their leader, Ambiorix,
successfully revolted in Belgica, ambushing and destroying the 7000-9000 strong Roman
detachment that had been sent to winter in their territory at Atuatuca.
Following this success, Ambiorix began to besiege the Roman garrison in the Nervii territory,
and a general revolt in the area broke out, with Indutiomarus and the Treveri also rising
in rebellion and being supported by the Germanic tribes across the Rhine. This was a dangerous
position: Caesar had spread his legions across Gaul in order to not put too much strain on
the resources of one area, and thus divided, they were vulnerable targets.
However, he reacted quickly, marching directly to the besieged legion in Nervii territory,
while Labienus fought off Indutiomarus. Upon seeing Caesar approaching, Ambiorix gave up
the siege to face this new threat, and was quickly defeated while, almost simultaneously,
Labienus was able to successfully repel his opponents.
Roman retribution for this revolt was swift and devastating. The Eburones were effectively
wiped out, while Ambiorix, according to some sources, left Gaul for Germania. To help stabilise
the situation, Pompey mobilised two more Legions and Caesar himself raised another. He now
had almost 50,000 men in Gaul under his command. However, this was only the prelude to something
much bigger. In 52 BC Caesar returned to Italy in order
to defuse another political problem and in the same year, another large-scale revolt
started. An Arverni leader, Vercingetorix, who probably knew about the political problems
in Rome, had organised an alliance of powerful Gallic tribes that, inspired by Ambiorix,
were now seeking independence, and had begun attacking Roman outposts and Roman allies
in Gaul. Upon hearing this, Caesar quickly returned
to Gaul to handle the situation. Going on one of his famous forced marches, he swiftly
quelled the Senones and Carnutes by taking their capitals. His next target was one of
the largest towns of the Bituriges - Noviodunum. Vercingetorix attempted to stop Caesar’s
advance near the city, but the Roman heavy infantry was too much for the Gauls and they
were forced to retreat losing many, which allowed Caesar to take the city. To finish
off the Bituriges he needed to take their capital Avaricum. At this point, Vercingetorix
started employing the scorched earth tactics and Bituriges joined him by burning down 20
of their towns – every one but Avaricum. The Romans moved against this settlement and
besieged it and although Avaricum was very defensible and Vercingetorix attempted to
help its defenders, it fell in less than a month. Caesar slaughtered 40 thousand locals
and replenished his supplies. It was clear for Vercingetorix that he can’t
the Romans in the field. Meanwhile, Caesar was eager to end the rebellion before it spreads
to other Gallic tribes, so he decided to strike the decisive blow by taking the capital of
the Arverni - Gergovia. Leaving some troops in the area, Caesar marched with 25,000 towards
this settlement, while Vercingetorix shadowed him.
Vercingetorix shadowed him with a similarly sized force. Gergovia was in a very solid
defensive position, located on top of a high plateau, and Vercingetorix managed to overtake
Caesar and positioned his army on the hills in front of the city.
As he had done in previous battles, Caesar hoped to cut his enemies’ supply lines in
order to force them out of their defensive position, whilst he would be receiving supplies
from the Aedui, his Gallic allies. However, the Gauls had occupied a hill overlooking
the supply line, from where they could ensure water and grain could be transported into
the city; taking it would therefore be crucial to Caesar’s plan.
In a quick night attack, he was able to dislodge the Gallic garrison there and station two
legions on the hill, linking this position with the main roman camp by a trench. So far,
all was going according to plan; Caesar’s allies would supply him from the rear and
Vercingetorix would now be forced to either sacrifice his defensive position in order
to re-establish his supply line, or be starved out.
However, Vercingetorix had his own plans. He bribed the Aedui, who then also joined
the revolt, attacking the Roman supplies and threatening to cut off Caesar and surround
him. Once again, Vercingetorix seemed to have studied Rome’s tactics deeply, as this strategy
was one of Caesar’s own favourite strategies. Caesar was forced to leave two legions to
guard the Roman position at Gergovia, and took the other four to deal with the Aedui,
quickly subduing them and forcing them to send 10,000 cavalry back to the siege with
him. This revolt had Caesar worried that he might face even more revolts, and could soon
be encircled by the rebels; he needed to extract his legions from Gergovia and consolidate
his troops. However, the situation at the city was not
looking good. The two legions left to guard the Roman camp had been hard pressed the entire
time Caesar had been gone. Furthermore, Vercingetorix had divided his forces, leaving half to defend
and fortify main Gallic camp in front of the city, and half, led by himself, to fortify
positions on the surrounding hills on the Gallic right flank. With a 6-foot wall now
in front of the main Gallic camp, and the Gallic fortifications on the hills, Vercingetorix
had removed any opportunity for Caesar to encircle him and the city.
Seeing the Gallic forces divided, Caesar saw an opportunity to attack their main camp in
order to deal a heavy enough blow to allow his army to retreat unmolested. He sent a
diversionary force of one legion and some cavalry to the surrounding hills, making a
huge amount of noise in order to distract the force commanded by Vercingetorix. Then
he quickly and quietly moved his remaining legions up to the Gallic camp, leaving a few
cohorts in the smaller camp on the occupied hill, while the Aedui cavalry were sent to
flank around the Gallic left by another route. The Romans quickly clambered over the wall
and fell upon the Gallic camp. The Romans initially had significant success, pushing
the Gauls right up to the walls of the city, but Caesar ordered a withdrawal before the
rest of the Gallic force under Vercingetorix could reinforce them. However, only one legion,
the 10th, heard this order and retreated, the others continuing to press on and assaulting
the city itself. Some Romans managed to climb on top of the city walls but were quickly
cut down and thrown back off. Missiles from the city walls fell into the Roman ranks as
they fought around the base of the walls. Vercingetorix, realising what was happening
from his position on the surrounding hills, sent the rest of his force, headed by his
cavalry, to reinforce the camp. The Roman position was now truly desperate; the initial
Gallic force and the city walls were in front of them; there was no way of cutting a way
out by pushing forward, and with Vercingetorix crashing into their flank, the legionaries
were under serious pressure and were almost surrounded.
The officers did their best to maintain Roman discipline and form a defensive formation.
According to Caesar himself, 46 centurions died in this struggle, roughly a quarter of
all the centurions present, and so maintaining any solid formation was almost impossible.
The Aedui finally appeared on a hill to the Roman right flank, but the Romans, unable
to tell if they were allied or not, broke completely, thinking that they were about
to be fully surrounded. Caesar was able to use the 10th legion and
the cohorts that had been stationed in the small camp to cover the retreat, and prevented
the Gauls from chasing them down, avoiding the total destruction of his army, and withdrew
from the field. In his commentaries, Caesar says that only 700 men were lost in this battle,
but this is likely vastly underplaying the situation. Caesar being forced to assemble
a rear guard and retreating show how disastrous the battle was, and it is likely that the
Romans lost thousands, modern estimates suggesting as many as 6,000.
hile Caesar was fighting a losing battle against Vercingetorix at Gergovia, his best legate
Titus Labienus was sent to deal with rebellions in northern Gaul. Local Gauls emboldened by
Vercingetorix and led by Camulogenus were consolidating around modern Paris, which was
called Lutetia at that time and was the capital of the Parisii. Labienus has left a legion
near Agedincum in order to have a supply line to Caesar and marched with 4 more legions
towards Lutetia. His troops took Metlosedum along the way, but the attempts to cross the
river Seine were blocked by Camulogenus. Labienus was forced to retreat back to Metlosedum.
Luckily for him, his scouts have found another crossing near Metlosedum and he crossed here
and moved against the Gauls. However, Camulogenus used Vercingetorix’ scorched earth tactic,
burning Lutetia and retreating to the swamps beyond. At the same time, Labienus learned
about Caesar’s defeat at Gergovia, which provoked a big Gallic tribe called Bellovaci
led by Correus to rebel, so he knew that he had to retreat beyond Seine and unite with
his legion in Agedincum. Labienus’s decision to divide his forces into three provoked Camulogenus
into attacking him to the south of Lutetia without waiting for the Bellovaci and in the
ensuing battle the Romans used the fact that their divided forces were closer to each other
– each group supported the other and the legions managed to defeat the Gauls with ease.
Camulogenus was killed in the process, which slowed down the consolidation of the anti-Roman
rebellion in northern Gaul. Caesar and Labienus both retreated towards
Agedincum, where they united their forces. Meanwhile, more and more Gauls were joining
the rebellion and after the rest of the Aedui joined it, even the Roman province of Narbonensis
were attacked by them. Caesar and his 10 legions moved through the Sequani and Lingones territory
to the east in order to gain a line of retreat to the Roman province of Gallia Transalpina.
At the same time, Caesar’s envoys secured a group of Germanic mercenaries, who joined
the Roman cavalry. Vercingetorix and his 80 thousand tried to attack Caesar, when the
latter was trying to cross the Vingeanne river, but the Romans were able to stop the attack
with ease. It is not clear why, but this minor defeat either disheartened Vercingetorix or
showed him that he couldn’t win against the Romans in an open battle, so he probably
tried to recreate the factors that led to the victory at Gergovia, when retreated to
the Mandubii capital of Alesia. Caesar followed him to the settlement.
Alesia was a well defended city on a hill, and sent messages to his nearby allies to
come to his aid. Vercingetorix was in a strong position; he outnumbered Caesar, commanding
a force of up to 80,000 men, and was surrounded by allies who would be able to quickly send
men to reinforce him. From his position, it should be a simple rerun of Gergovia: he would
wait on the high ground for his allies to arrive so they could either disrupt the Roman
supply lines, or attack them from the rear. Caesar had learnt his lesson though. Despite
his smaller numbers, he immediately began the work of fully surrounding and besieging
Alesia, something which Vercingetorix had been able to prevent him doing at Gergovia.
The Romans began constructing a 16km wall fully encircling the entire city, complete
with palisades, trenches and towers, hoping to cut off any escape.
Vercingetorix sent his cavalry out to try and disrupt these works, but the Legions were
able to form a defensive line to hold them, while the German auxiliaries flanked around
the side. The Germans proved to be vital to the Roman cause, and their superior horsemanship
forced the Gallic cavalry to retreat back into the city, killing many as they were funnelled
into the narrow gates. Realising that he would soon be completely
surrounded, Vercingetorix decided to send out what was left of his cavalry at night
to sneak past the Roman line and to head to the nearby tribes to request reinforcements
as soon as possible. Upon completing the first wall, Caesar learned
from some Gallic deserters that these messengers had been sent, and so constructed a second
wall, this one almost 21km long and complete with 2 trenches and a moat, facing outwards
to protect against any Gallic reinforcements, creating a donut like structure with Alesia
in the centre. He next sent out huge foraging parties to
collect enough food to sustain his troops for the next 30 days. In doing this, Caesar
had effectively robbed Vercingetorix of his advantages; with the Romans thus defended
and supplied, it was the Gauls who now faced a well dug in enemy, and it was now Vercingetorix
whose time was running out. With an army of 80,000 men inside the city, plus the civilian
population and no way of resupplying, it was only a matter of time before he was starved
out. This was Caesar’s magnum opus. Faced with a desperate situation, Vercingetorix
made the difficult decision to expel anyone who wasn't going to be fighting, the old,
the sick, women and children. He had hoped that Caesar would allow these people through
the Roman defences and to safety. But Caesar was not in a merciful mood. He refused to
let them pass and the civilians were left between the walls of Alesia and the Romans,
imploring both sides for food and water, neither side relenting. Over the next few days, many
died of starvation and thirst, the space between the armies becoming full of the dying and
dead. The Gallic allies finally arrived to try and
relieve the siege, under the command of Veringetorix’s cousin, Vercassivellaunus. It is hard to say
precisely how many there were: Caesar claims that the number was as high as 250,000, with
modern estimates suggesting somewhere between 70,000 to 100,000. Whatever the true number
was, all agree that the Romans were now significantly outnumbered; at least two to one.
On the first day of their arrival, they quickly filled in the first Roman trench and sent
across a combined force of light infantry and cavalry to probe the defences, whilst
the rest of the army set up camp. Caesar countered by sending out his own Germanic cavalry, and
a fierce skirmish ensued. From their elevated position inside the city,
the besieged Gauls saw that their allies had arrived and simultaneously began massing for
a sally against the inner fortifications. However, the Germans once again proved their
skill, outmanoeuvring and flanking their Gallic counterparts, forcing them back across the
trench and into the Gallic camp. Seeing his allies defeated, Vercingetorix decided to
bide his time and held off his attack. The reinforcements spent the next day constructing
siege ladders, and then, at midnight, launched another attack. Taking the Romans by surprise,
they found some initial success, but Marc Anthony, in his first battle, was commanding
this section of the wall and proved himself to be a composed and skillful lieutenant,
pulling troops from other sections of the walls to reinforce his position. Again, Vercingetorix
began to sally out to try and help his allies, but was delayed by having to fill the Roman
trench. By the time he had crossed it, Anthony had successfully fought off the assault and
Vercingetorix again withdrew into the city. Following these two failed assaults, Vercassivellaunus
conducted more thorough reconnaissance of the Roman position, and discovered that a
steep hill overlooked the Roman wall in the northern section. Hoping to use this high
ground to his advantage, the next day the Gauls used their overwhelming numbers to attack
the entire length of the outside wall but concentrated a large force under Vercassivellaunus
on this portion. At the same time, Vercingetorix again sallied
out, this time attacking the length of the interior Roman fortifications, hitting wherever
looked weakest. This was the toughest the fighting had been so far. Caesar, as he had
done at the battle of the Sabis, dashed from cohort to cohort, urging his men on, leading
reserve cohorts personally to points where the defences looked like they were faltering.
Vercassivellaunus began making headway, pilling earthworks up against the walls in order to
mount them, and using hooks and siege engines to tear down the Roman defences. Caesar committed
every man he had left of his reserves, pulling every man who could be spared and sending
them into the action. It was a desperate battle for the Romans; between the two walls there
would be no escape, and if the line faltered the entire army would surely be wiped out.
The Roman line was holding the Gallic army, but it seemed like it wouldn’t last for
long. But then Caesar appeared at the top of the hill; leading the Germanic auxiliaries
he crashed into the rear of the Gallic reinforcements. Surrounded now on all sides, the Gauls who
had pushed through the breach were decimated and the tide of the battle changed. Seeing
their largest contingent broken, the moral of the rest of the Gallic reinforcements shattered
and they quickly fled. With this threat thus neutralised, the Romans turned to deal with
Vercingetorix, who was attacking the interior wall, and they were able to force him back
into the city. With the city still besieged and with his
reinforcements spent, Vercingetorix surrendered. It is unknown how many Romans died, but the
casualties must have been fairly significant given the intensity of the fighting, particularly
at the point where the fortifications had been breached. The Gallic relief force suffered
heavy casualties, the entirety of the besieged army in Alesia was either killed or enslaved,
and both Vercassivellaunus and Vercingetorix were taken alive. The Romans had lost around
13 thousand in this battle.
Although most the rebel leaders were either dead or captured, the resistance against Rome
was far from over, as Bituriges, Carnutes, Bellovaci, Atrebates, Andecavi and others
were still in open rebellion. In January of 51 BC, Caesar moved against Bituriges. This
winter campaign surprised Bituriges, who were probably unprepared for it, and soon they
sued for peace, which allowed Caesar to return to his winter quarters.
However, soon, the Bituriges were attacked by the Carnutes for yielding to the Romans.
Once again Caesar marched swiftly and took his enemies by surprise, forcing the Carnutes
to submit. The Romans made a new winter quarters at the capital of Bituriges Cenabum and stayed
there until the Spring. Leaving 6 legions in the area, Caesar took
4 and moved against the Bellovaci of Correus and the Atrebates of Commius. This campaign
proved difficult, as both tribes abandoned their lands and fought a guerilla war against
the Romans. Fortunately for the legions, Correus was killed in one of the ambushes, which proved
to be the final straw for the Bellovaci and they were convinced to seek peace, while Commius
retreated to the east to continue his resistance. To the south the Andecavi attacked Lemonum
and were defeated by Caesar’s lieutenants. Remainder of the Gallic forces in the area
attempted to defend at Uxellodunum, but were defeated by Caesar soon after. The last engagement
of the war saw Commius defeated in the north and the rebellion was over.
Gaul was pacified and Caesar won over the remaining Gallic leaders with gifts and the
promise of the lower tribute. He knew that the battle for Rome is about to start. The
Civil War that would end the centuries long republic was just around the corner.
Thus, ends the first season of our series on Gaius Julius Caesar, but he will be back
for the second season, so make sure you are subscribed to our channel and pressed the
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